LB 071-073T 怡萱

Ch2 IV. Conclusion

Comparison of man’s peripheral anatomy with that of other primates reveals a number of specializations of face bones and muscles especially in chimpanzee and gorilla does not render a study of anatomy useless in our attempts to understand the biological foundations of speech and language. The general configuration of the vocal tract has undergone geometric transformations in man which have a direct effect upon the acoustics of universal human speech sounds.

人類的外部解剖與其他靈長類動物比較之下，顯示了一些特別的人臉骨骼和肌肉，尤其是在黑猩猩和大猩猩，研究解剖的無效並不影響我們試圖了解生物的基礎語言。一般在人類聲帶的構造經歷了幾何變換，對於普遍語言的聽覺有直接影響的關係。

The alterations of the vocal tract that are specific to man can hardly be explained as adjustment to a different diet or as peculiar adaptations to any other vital function. Nevertheless, we do not attribute these peculiarities to any primeval need for communication or for making speech sounds, because such teleological arguments are repugnant to the scientific outlook. On the other hand, it is not impossible that some aspect of sound-making efficiency might not have played into the mechanisms of natural selection during the history of the species.

改變遺傳基質的聲帶道所特有的人很難被解釋為調整不同的飲食或特殊適應任何其他重要功能。儘管如此，我們並不把這些任何特殊屬性的溝通或發出聲音的行為當成原始需要，因為這些論點的目的是反對的科學展觀。另一方面，這不是不可能從某一些方面去決策健全的效率，在自然物種選擇歷史的過程中，有可能沒有發揮到機制。


Man’s central nervous system presents several innovations. Among them there is at least one that is directly related to language, namely the lateralization of function or, in other words, left-hemisphere dominance. In addition to the right to left displacement of function, there is also an antero-posterior polarization within the left hemisphere because anterior lesions disturb predominantly motor aspects of language, whereas the more posterior ones tend to involve predominantly sensory aspects. The histological differentiation of the cerebral cortex and the cortico-thalamic fiber-connections have no clearly demonstrable language specify. Language and speech are not merely represented in the cortex, but there seem to be language-correlated functions that also involve subcortical and mid-brain structures.

人的中樞神經系統提出了若干創新。其中至少有一個是直接相關的語言，即側化的功能，換言之，就是左西半球的主導地位。除了從右向左位移的功能，也有另ㄧ邊後側化後的左半球是因為先前損害干擾語言引擎的方面，而更後的往往涉及主要感官方面的問題。該組織分化的大腦皮質和皮質丘腦光纖連接沒有明顯的語言清楚地說明。語言和言語不只是代表的皮質，但似乎有語言的相關職能，也涉及皮質和中腦的結構。


The large size of the human brain cannot be attributed specifically to the exercise of language functions.
In general, it is not possible to assign any specific neuro-anatomic structure to the capacity for language. However, this capacity may be due to structural innovations on a molecular level. Language is probably due to the peculiar way in which the various parts of the brain work together or, in other words, to its peculiar function.

人類的大腦規模龐大，不能歸咎於具體行使的語言功能。 一般來說，語言是不可能指定任何特定的神經解剖結構的能力。但是，這種能力可能是由於體制創新的分子標準。語言可能是由於獨特的方式的各部分大腦共同努力，換言之，是大腦特有的功能。

Reference:

Ajuriaguerra, J. de and Hécaen, H. (1949), Le Cortex cerebral; étude neuro-psychopathologique. Masson, Paris.

Bailey, P., and Bonin, G. v. (1951), The Isocortex of the Chimpanzee. Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana.

Bailey, P., Bonin, G.v., and McCulloch, W. S. (1950), The Isocortex of the Chimpanzee. Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana.

Bailey, P., Buchanan, D. N., and Bucy, P.C. (1939), Intracranial Tumors of Infancy and Childhood. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Bailey, P. and Davis, E. W. (1942), Effects of lesions of the periaqueductal gray matter in the cat, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med. 51:305-306.

Bok, S.T. (1959), Histonomy of the Cerebral Cortex. Elsevier, Amsterdam.Bonin, G. von (1950), Essay on the Cerebral Cortex. C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.

Bonin, G. von (1962), Anatomical asymmetries of the cerebral hemispheres, in Interhemispheric Relations and Cerebral Dominance. V.B. Mountcastle (ed.), The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore.

Bonin, G. von and Bailey, P. (1961), Pattern of the cerebral isocortex, in Primatologia; Handbook of Primatology. H. Hofer, A. H. Schultz, and D. Starck (eds.), Karger, Basel.

Braus, H. (1954), Anatomie des Menschen, ein Lehrbuch für studierende Ärzte fortgeführt von Curt Elze (3rd ed.), Vol. I. Springer, Berlin.

Brodnitz, F. S. (1960), Speech after glossectomy, Curr. Probl. Phoniat. Logoper. 1:68-72.Campion, G. G. and Elliot-Smith, G. The Neutral Basis of Thought. Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York, 1934

Clark, W. E. Le Gros (1932), The structure and connections of the thalamus, Brain 55:406-470.Conrad, K. (1954), New problems of aphasia, Brain 77:491-509

Coppoletta, J. M. and Wolbach, S. B. (1933), Body length and organ weights of infants and children, Am. J. Pathol. 9:55-70.

Critchley, M. (1962), Speech and speecj-loss in relation to duality of the brain in Interhemispheric Relations and Cerebral Dominance, V. B. Mountcastle (ed.), pp.208-213. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Dodgson, M.C. H. (1962), The Growing Brain; An Essay in Developmental Neurology. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.

DuBrul, E. L. (1958), Evolution of the Speech Apparatus. C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.

Duckworth, W. L. H.(1910), A note on sections of the lips of the primates, J. Anat. And Physiol. 44: 348:-353.

Feremutsch, K. (1963), Thalamus, in Primatologia; Handbook of Primatology, H. Hofer, A. H. Schultz, and D. Starck (eds.), Vol. II, part 2, fasc. 6. Karger, Basel.

Fink, B. R. and Kirschner, F. (1959), Observations on the acoustical and mechanical properties of the vocal folds, Folia Phoniatria 11: 167-172.

Goldstein, K. (1942), After-effects of Brain Injuries in War; Their Evalution an dTreatment, Grune and Stratton, New York.

Guiot, G., Hertzog, E, Rondot , P., and Molina, P. (1961), Arrest or acceleration of speech evoked by thalamic stimulation in the course of stereotaxic procedures for Parkinsonism, Brain 84:363-380.

Hartmann-v. Monakow, K. (1965), Psychosyndrome und Sprachstoerungen nach stereotakischen Operationen beim Parkinson-Syndrome, Akt. Fragen Psychiat. Neurol. 2:87-100.

Heberer, G. (ed.) (1965), Menschliche Abstammungslehre; Fortschritte der Anthropogenie, 1863-1964. G. Fischer, Stuttgart.

Hofer, H. (1965), Die morphologische Analyse des Schädels des Menschen, in Menschliche Abstammungslehre, G. Heberer (ed.), Fischer, Stuttgart.

Huber, E. (1931), Evolution of Facial Musculature and Facial Expression. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Kaplan, H. M. (1960), Anatomy and Physiology of Speech. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Kelemen, G. (1938), Comparative anatomical studies on the junction of larynx and resonant tube, Acta oto-laryng. 26:276-283.

Kelemen, G. (1939), Vergleichende Anatomie und Physiologie der Stimmorgane, Arch, Sprache-Stimmheilk. 3:213-237

Kelemen, G. (1948), the anatomical basis of phonation in the chimpanzee, J. Morphol. 82:229-256.

Kelly, A. H., Beaton, L. E., and Magoun, H. W. (1946). A midbrain mechanism for facio-vocal activity, J. Neurophysiol. 9:181-189.

Kleinschmidt, A. (1938), Die Schulund-Kehlorgane des Gorillas “Bobby,” Morphol. Jahrb. 81:78.

Kleinschmidt, A. (1949-1950), Zur Anatomie des Kehlkopfes der Anthropoiden, Anat. Anz. 97:367-372.

Kreht, H. (1936), Cytoarchitektonik und motorisches Sprachzentrum, Z. Mikroskopischanat. Forsch. 39:331-354.

Kroeber, A. L. (1948), Anthropology. Harcourt. Brace and World, New York.

Kummer, B. (1953), Untersuchungen über die Entwicklung der Schädelform des Menschen und einiger Anthropoiden, in Abhandlungen z. Exakten Biologie. L. von Bertalanfly (ed.), Borntraeger, Berlin.

Lasheley, K. S. and Clark, G. (1946), The cytoarchitecture of the cerebral cortex of Ateles: A critical examination of architectonic studies, J. comp. Neurol. 85:223-305.

Lenneberg, E. H. (1962), Understanding language without ability to speak: a case report, J. Abnorm. Soc. Psycho. 65:419-425.

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Lightoller G. S. (1928), The facial muscles of three orang utans and two cercopithecidae, J. Anat. 63:19-81.

LB 463-464T 怡萱

Most workers on aphasia were content to consider language in terms of the memory and articulation of words, and they constructed complicated diagrams demonstrating the localization of language.20 Carl Wernicke exemplified the dominating trend of thought in the work on aphasia when he insisted that language must be considered in complete isolation from concept formation and intelligence. The reception and production of language must likewise be considered quite separately. There were undoubtedly many reasons for the reduction to “the simplest hypotheses” in the construction of models for language physiology.21 Wernicke hints at one of them, when he emphasized the difference between the localization advocated by the phrenologists and his own.22 [95]. In 1891 A Critical Study, Towards a Conceptualization of Aphasia was published by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). It demonstrated that the difference between Gall’s and Wernicke’s concept of localization was not a basic one. Just because,” will and intellect have been recognized as psychological technical terms… (one does not)…know with greater certainty that simple sense images are nothing more than such a technical term.” There is no justification for the assumption that the physiological correlate of a simple psychological element is also simple and localizable [96] Freud out.

大多數失語症的運作者必須考慮語言方面的記憶和表述的話的內容，他們建造複雜的圖表顯示了語言的定位.卡爾韋尼克認為失語症的運作型態是主導思潮，當他堅持認為，語言必須被視為在完全孤立從概念的形成和理解力。語言的容納和生產必須同樣被視為絕對分開運作。毫無疑問，減少許多原因是在於建設語言生理學模式，是“最簡單的假設”。韋尼克暗示其中一項，他強調差異定位所倡導的骨相學和他擁有的 。在1891年的批判性研究下，弗洛伊德出版了（ 1856年至1939年）建立一個失語的概念化。這顯示戈爾和韋尼克之間的區別和定位的概念不是一個基本的面向。只是因為， “意志和智慧已被確認為心理技術術語... ...知道更大的確定性，簡單意義上的圖像只不過是這樣一個技術術語。弗洛伊德指出: ”沒有任何理由假設，是一個簡單的心理因素也是簡單和定位是和生理相關的。

He had touched the weakest spot of the aphasia theories by demonstrating that the so-called physiology of language was no more than a translation of psychological insights into physiological terms. In their attempt to consider the biological basis of language without becoming involved in psychology, the workers on aphasia had introduced their own psychology in physiological terms.23

他曾觸及不充分的失語症的理論表明，所謂的語言生理是只是一個心理的翻譯來洞察生理條件。在他們的企圖考慮生物學基礎的語言並沒有捲入心理學，而失語症的人在術語.23介紹了自己的心理和生理。


If nothing else, the basic importance of the brain for language function had been established by the work done on aphasia. Yet neither the brain nor aphasia was even mentioned in one of the most important books on language, published in 1891 by Georg von der Gabelentz (1840-1893). In speaking of the biological basis of man’s language capacity, he only mentioned the upright posture and man’s unencumbered chest as factors which may have facilitated development of language in the human species. The psychological origin of language was sought in jealousy, boredom, playfulness or other mental and physical needs. Linguistics should not be a natural science, and only man’s ability to order his thoughts could be profitably subjected to the method of scientific psychology. The most important function of language, the expression of connected thoughts and concepts, could only be studied by means of logical analysis and metaphysics [97]. Steinthal’s hope that language would be considered in a broader frame had not been realized in linguistics.

如果沒有其他的功能，大腦語言功能的基本重要性已經由失語症的運作完成建立。然而無論是大腦也不是失語症中，提到的一本最重要的語言書籍，出版於1891年由喬治馮德加貝倫茨（ 1840至1893年） 。在談到生物學基礎上人的語言能力，他只提到了直立的姿勢和人的支配胸部的因素可能有利於人類物種在語言上的發展。心理起源的語言是尋求嫉妒，無聊，遊戲或其他精神和肉體的需要。而語言學不應該是一個自然的科學，只有人有能力去命令腦中想法，這樣可以獲得科學心理的方法。語言最重要的功能，是表達的聯繫思想和概念，這樣僅僅是研究邏輯分析方法和形而上學。施泰因塔爾希望，將語言在更廣泛的範圍內去實現語言學。

LB 394-395T 怡萱

CH 9. Ⅴ.
With respect to language, we should like to know how narrowly defined the biological matrix is. This is entirely an empirical question, and the objective is not to find out whether the environment is necessary (it clearly is) and not even how much or what it contributes to the development of language (the answers are almost too obvious to deserve much attention)；the only thoroughly interesting problem here is to discover the range of possible alternatives to the common modes of internal organization for language processing. At present, we have only indirect clues (language universals, common age for language onset, and a universal strategy for language acquisition), and these point to great specificity of the underlying matrix.

至於語言方面，我們要知道如何嚴格界定生物矩陣。這完全是一個經驗性的問題，目標不是找出發展語言是否需要環境（這是顯而易見的）和甚至有多少或什麼方式有助於發展語言（答案幾乎明顯到值得重視） ;這個唯一有趣的問題是，要發現各種可能替代共同的內部組織語言處理的模式。目前，我們只能用間接線索（語言共通性，語言開始的共同年齡，和一個語言習得普遍的策酪） ，這些是基本矩陣的重大特殊指向。


In the light of these comments we may ask now,” Just what is postulated to be innate in language behavior?” Essentially the modes of categorization as discussed in Chapter Seven and Eight. This is an aspect of the latent structure. Innate also is the general mode actualization process but no particular aspect of the realized structure. Thus, no features that are characteristic of only certain natural languages, either particulars of syntax, or phonology, or semantics, are assumed here to be innate. However, there are many reasons to believe that the processes by which the realized, outer structure of a natural language comes about are deeply-rooted, species-specific, innate properties of man's biological nature.

根據這些意見，我們現在可能會問: “究竟什麼是是天生的語言行為的必要條件？ ”第七章和第八章中討論分類方式的本質。這是一個潛在結構的面向。先天也是一般模式實現的過程，但沒有特別去實現結構的面向。因此，只有限於自然語言中的功能和特點，無論是細部的句法，或音韻，或語意，在這裡假設語言是天生的。然而，有許多理由可以相信這些實現的過程，像是外部結構的一種自然的語言來的是根深蒂固的，具體的物種情況，人類生物性質的天生特性。

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