大腦的功能

大腦的功能



由上圖可知，大腦依功能類別，



共可區分為 10 個區塊：

左前額葉腦、右前額葉腦、

左後額葉腦、右後額葉腦、

左頂葉腦、右頂葉腦、

左顳葉腦、右顳葉腦、

左枕葉腦、右枕葉腦等 10 個。



而這 10 個區塊，依照皮紋學的研究顯示，剛好與 10 根手指的皮紋有一對一的關係存在，

以下是此關係的對應表： 人類的大腦，掌管了人類精神、思維、體覺、聽覺、視覺等五大功能，而皮紋學的主要研究方向，就是在研究大腦與皮紋之間的關聯性。

大腦由上方往下俯視，可將大腦區分為兩大腦塊：

左大腦與右大腦，而這兩大腦塊均含四大腦葉：額葉腦(Frontal Lobe)、頂葉腦(Parietal Lobe)、枕葉腦(Occipital Lobe)、顳葉腦(Temporal Lobe)。

大腦有運動中樞，感覺中樞，視覺中樞，聽覺中樞，語言中樞，情緒中樞，記憶中樞等等，而左右大腦，不但控制對側肢體功能，也有其獨特的分工，腦的基本單位是腦細胞神經元 (Neurons) 與神經膠質 (Glia Cells)





手指位置
大腦區塊
大腦主要功能

１
左手姆指
右前額葉腦
創造領導、目標憧憬

２
左手食指
右後額葉腦
空間心像、構思擬想

３
左手中指
右頂葉腦
體覺感受、藝術欣賞

４
左手無名指
右顳葉腦
聽覺感受、音樂欣賞

５
左手小指
右枕葉腦
視覺感受、圖像欣賞

６
右手姆指
左前額葉腦
溝通管理、計畫判斷

７
右手食指
左後額葉腦


邏輯推理、語言功能

８
右手中指
左頂葉腦
體覺辨識、操作理解

９
右手無名指
左顳葉腦
聽覺辨識、語言理解

１０
右手小指
左枕葉腦
視覺辨識、觀察理解



文章來源

http://blog.udn.com/hanfred/1033496

探索腦部及脊髓

索腦部及脊髓

腦的基本介紹
較高層次的功能
脊髓
周邊神經系統
神經元
感覺系統
方法和技術
藥物的作用
神經系統及心智失調

「神經科學」與「腦」的常見問題
嶄新的一天，嶄新的神經科學
「神經科學網」上的問題與解答
有史以來第一個使用 "neuro"這個字
神經科學界的女性
腦袋裡的電腦？
神經科學的職業生涯：一場生存之賽？
神經科學家的職場生涯
神經科學研究的里程碑
神經科學界的諾貝爾獎得主
神經科學郵票集錦



腦的基本介紹
神經系統的分區
腦的分類
腦部的分區－腦葉
大腦皮層的功能性分區
腦部的正中剖面
腦的容量╱大腦皮質
一個還是兩個腦子？
女人和男人的腦
腦的發育
老化的神經系統
腦神經
血腦障壁
腦子的安居之處－頭顱骨
腦室和腦脊髓液
腦膜
腦部的血液供給
神經系統與身體其他系統的相互作用
腦部的剖面
九種不同動物種類腦部組織的比較
比較神經解剖學
無脊椎動物的神經系統
睡眠中的腦
動物睡多久？
頭腦體操：頭好壯壯的方法
腦的病變








「較高層次」的功能
巧克力和神經系統
我們只用了10％的腦力嗎？
笑和腦
暢所欲言－腦和語言
腦和營養物
聰明藥物？
音樂和腦
人腦比電腦
愛因斯坦的腦？
尤金˙歐尼爾：什麼出錯？
打哈欠
滿月抓狂
聯覺
腦的可塑性
辨識面孔





脊髓
分節的脊髓：脊髓解剖
膝躍反射（單突觸反射）

周邊神經系統
自律神經系統

神經元
成千成億的細胞－神經元的種類
連結－突觸
神經元美術館
神經科學的聲音
電子顯微下的突觸
光，照相機，動作電位
神經膠細胞：被遺忘的腦細胞
危險物質－神經毒物
神經傳導素和神經活化胜肽
化學武器－神經藥劑
神經傳導速率
跳躍式的傳導




感覺系統
皮膚和感覺受器
疼痛的原因
牙齒
看到了－眼睛
視網膜
視覺傳導途徑
瞧！為什麼你需要戴眼鏡？
護眼睛的小撇步
聽到了─耳朵
聞到了─鼻子
那就是味覺！
食物和飲料的顏色會影響味覺嗎？ 動物驚人的感應能力



神經科學的方法和技術
統計學：數字會說話
腦電圖：10-20腦波電極裝置系統
神經科學研究中常用的方法
腦的成像方法
神經科學名詞詞彙表
神經科學這一行


藥物對於神經系統的影響
酒精
安非他命


巴比妥
咖啡因
古柯鹼
快樂丸（MDMA）
海洛因
吸入劑（Inhalants）
迷幻藥（LSD）
大麻
尼古丁
迷姦藥（Rohypnol）
丁烷類
天使粉（PCP）
迷姦藥（GHB)
迷幻蘑菇

神經學與精神失調
阿茲海默症
肌萎縮性脊髓側索硬化症








艾斯伯格症候群
過動症
自閉症
細菌性腦膜炎
躁鬰症
常見的眼睛疾病
閱讀障礙I
閱讀障礙II
癲癇
胎兒酒精症候群
波斯灣戰爭症候症
杭丁頓氏舞蹈症
鉛與神經系統
萊姆病
汞對神經系統的影響
多發性硬化症
猝睡症
小兒麻痺
狂犬病
腿部焦慮症候群
精神分裂症
足球和腦部撞擊
先天性脊柱分裂
中風
妥瑞氏症
暫時性腦缺血
西尼羅河病毒

大腦皮質的各功能區

大腦皮質的各功能區

大腦皮質負責許多「高等」的認知功能，像是語言以及訊息處理。語言中心通常只出現在左大腦皮質。如果你想多瞭解關於語言以及左右大腦半球之間的異同，你可以閱讀網站裡大腦分割實驗。

皮質區	功能	布洛卡區（Broca's Area） 韋尼克氏區（Wernicke's Area） 　 影像由Slice of Life提供
前額葉皮質區 （Prefrontal Cortex）	解決問題, 情緒, 複雜性的思考
運動聯合區 （Motor Association Cortex）	複雜性運動的協調，例如：舞蹈
主要運動皮質區 （Primary Motor Cortex）	自主性動作的啟動
主要自體感覺皮質區 （Primary Somatosensory Cortex）	由身體接收觸覺訊息
感官聯合區 （Sensory Association Area）	處理多重的感官訊息
視覺聯合區 （Visual Association Area）	掌管複雜的視覺訊息處理
視覺皮質 （Visual Cortex）	偵測簡單的視覺刺激
韋尼克氏區 （Wernicke's Area）	掌管語言的理解
聽覺聯合區 （Auditory Association Area）	掌管複雜性的聽覺訊息處理
聽覺皮質 （Auditory Cortex）	偵測聲音的質地 (音量, 音質)
語言中樞：布洛卡區 (Broca's Area)	掌管語言的產生與咬字的清晰程度

　

LB 018-020T 怡萱

The situation for primates and man in particular is not completely clear. Although regeneration is also amyotypic and coordination is either permanently disarranged or at least always remains poor, some central nervous system mechanisms seem to have developed in those forms that enable the individual to make some secondary, partial readjustment. Perhaps this new learning is based on more complex cortical activities- possibly those that are experienced by man as will – but these speculations still lack empirical evidence.

尤其是靈長類動物和人的狀況尚未完全清楚。雖然再生也是amyotypic與協調性永久混亂或總是留下貧乏的混亂，一些中樞神經系統的機制似乎已制定在這些形式，使個人能夠提出一些次要的和局部的調整。或許這一新的學習是基於更為複雜的大腦皮質活動，藉由人的經驗有可能是好的-但這些猜測仍然缺乏實證。

The picture would not be complete without at least a superficial reference to the sensory disarrangement brought about by extracorporeal distortions, such as vision through wearing distorting lenses or prisms. Man, and a variety of lower forms, can learn quickly to make a number of adaptive corrections for these distortions (Kohler, 1951). However, the adjustment is not complete. In adjusting motor coordination to distorted visual input, it is essential that the individual goes through a period of motor adaptation, and there is cogent evidence that this is required for a physiological reintegration between afferent and efferent impulses and not simply to provide the subject with “knowledge” of the spatial configurations (Held and Hein, 1958), (Smith and Smith, 1962). Furthermore, man’s cognitive adjustment to visually distorted environment is never complete. Subjects who wear image-inverting goggles soon come to perceive the world right-side-up (through as the beginning it was seen upside down). But even after many weeks of relative adjustment, they experience paradoxical sights such as smoke from a pipe falling download instead of rising upward or snowflakes going up instead of coming down.

至少沒有從表面提到感覺紊亂所帶來的體外扭曲，該圖片將不會是完整的，如通過佩戴隱形眼鏡或棱鏡而視覺扭曲。人們，以及各種較低的形式，可以迅速學習去做出一些適應性來更正這些扭曲（科勒， 1951年） 。然而，調整尚未完成。在調整動作協調，以歪曲的視覺輸入，重要的是，個別經過一段馬達的適應，並有令人信服的證據證明，這是一種重新傳入和傳出之間的衝擊以生理恢復的需要，而不僅僅是提供的“知識“主題的空間配置（海德和海因， 1958年） ， （史密斯和史密斯， 1962 ） 。此外，人的視覺認知調整扭曲的環境是永遠不會完成。主題是帶著圖像反相的護目鏡，去感受即將到來右側向上的世界（通過的開始它被認為頭是朝下） 。但即使在許多個星期的相對調整，他們的經驗自相矛盾的視覺，如煙霧從管道下降而不是上升或雪花上升而不是下降。

The over-all conclusion that must be drawn from the disarrangement experiments are first, that motor coordination (and certain behavior patterns dependent upon it) is driven by a rigid, unalterable cycle of neurophysiological events inherent in a species’ central nervous system; second, that larval, fetal, or embryonic tissues lack specialization; this enables these tissues to influence one another in such a way as to continue to play their originally assigned role despite certain arbitrary peripheral rearrangements. Because of this adaptability, species-specific motor coordination reappears again and again regardless of experimentally switched connections. Third, as tissues become more specialized- both in ontogeny and in phylogeny- the adaptability and mutual tissue influence disappears. Therefore, in higher vertebrates peripheral disarrangements cause permanent discoordination. Finally, with advance of phylogenic history, ancillary neurophysiological mechanisms appear which modify and at times obscure the central and inherent theme- the cyclic driving force at the root of simple motor coordination. More complex storage devices (memories) and inhibitory mechanisms are examples.

全面性的結論，即必須先從未安排的實驗描繪，動作協調（取決於它的某些行為模式）是僵硬的，像是不可改變的週期神經生理活動中，其中所固有物種的中樞神經系統;第二，那幼蟲，胎兒或胚胎組織缺乏專業化，這使這些組織影響專業化的另一種方式，儘管某些周邊重新排列，還是繼續發揮其原來分配的作用。由於這有這樣的適應性，不論開關連接與否，物種的具體動作協調會重新出現一次又一次的實驗，第三，隨著組織變得更加專業，無論在個體發育和系統發育，適應性和相互組織的影響力消失。因此，在更高階的脊椎動物系統的周邊混亂造成永久性不協調。最後，推動生物進化系統的歷史，輔助神經生理機制的出現，去修改生理機制、有些在不明顯中央和固有的主題-簡單的動作協調的循環動力根源。更複雜的存儲設備（記憶）和抑制機制就是這些例子。

With the emergence of more specialized brains, the nature of behavior-specificity changes. Although it would be an inexcusable oversimplification to say that behavior, in general, becomes more or less specific with phylogenetic advance, there is perhaps some truth in the following generalizations. In the lower forms, there seems to be a greater latitude in what constitutes an effective stimulus, but there is a very narrow range of possible responses. Pattern perception, for instance, is poorly developed so that an extremely large array of stimulus configurations may serve to elicit a certain behavior sequence, and thus there is little specificity in stimulability. However, the motor responses are all highly predictable and are based on relatively simple neuromuscular correlates; thus there is high degree of response specificity. With advancing phylogeny, the reverse seems to become true. More complex pattern perception is correlated with greater stimulus specificity and has a wider range of possible motor responses, that is, less response specificity. However, both of these trends in decreasing and increasing specificity are actually related to greater and greater behavioral and ecological specialization. Taxonomists will be quick to point out countless exceptions to these rules. Evolution is not so simple and can never be brought to confirm to a few formulas. The statement here is merely to the effect that such trends exist and that, generally speaking, specificity both in stimulation and in responsiveness changes throughout the history of life.

隨著更專業的大腦的出現，行為特異性的性質改變。雖然這將是一個無法辯解簡單化地行為說法，在一般情況下，在系統發育提前或多或少變得更加具體，也許在以下的概括性的論述中有一些的道理可循。在較低階層的形式中，這似乎意味著有更大的自由度去構成一種影響性的刺激，但能採取對策範圍很狹窄。模式的知覺，例如，發展不足以致於，這樣一個相當大的陣列配置的刺激可能有助於引起某些行為排列，因此很少有特異性的刺激反應。然而，動力的反應都是高度可預測性，並基於相對的簡單神經肌肉相關性;因此，有特異性的高度反應。隨著系統發生，相反的系統似乎成為真實高度的反應。更為複雜的模式知覺是與更大的刺激特異性相關的和有更廣泛可能的機動反應範圍，也就是更少特異性的反應。但是，這兩種趨勢在下降和特異性的增加，越來越多的特異性在實際上涉及越來越大的行為和生態專業化。分類學家很快指出這些規則中無數例外。演變並非如此簡單，可以從來沒有被幾個公式所確認。此聲明這裡僅僅是其影響這種趨勢存在，一般來說，特異性均在刺激和反應性變化中遍及歷史的生命。


In the vast majority of vertebrates, functional readjustment to anatomical rearrangement appears to be totally impossible. Even if the animal once “knew how” to pounce on prey, peripheral-central disarrangement will permanently incapacitate the animal from pursuing the necessities for its livelihood. If the primate order should indeed be proven to be an exception to this rule- and there is little evidence of this so far- then we would have to deal with phenomenon as an extreme specialization, whose details and consequences are yet to be investigated. There is such less modifiability for those coordination patterns which constitute species-specific behavior than is usually realized, and we must keep in mind that most behavioral traits have species-specific aspects.


在絕大多數的脊椎動物中，重新整理解剖的功能調整看來似乎是完全不可能的。即使動物一度“知道如何”會撲到獵物，外圍中心的混亂會使永久使去能力的動物的追求生活的必然性。如果靈長類秩序應該證明是一個例外，而且到目前為止沒有證據證明這一點，那麼我們將應該處理的是一個極端的特殊化，其細節和結果有待調查。如此少變性的協調模式構成物種行為通常比我們認知到的還要少，我們必須記住，有明確物種的方向是最具行為特點的。


This statement is not contradicted by the great variety of arbitrary behavior that is produced by training. Pressing a bar in a cage, pecking at a red spot, jumping into the air at the signal of a buzzer (in short, the infinity of arbitrary tricks an animal can be made to perform) do not imply that we could train individuals of one species (for example, common house cats) to adopt the identical motor behavior patterns of another, such as that of a dog. Although there is perfect homology of muscles, we cannot train a cat to wag its tail with a dog’s characteristic motor coordination. Nor can one induce a cat to vocalize on the same occasions a dog vocalizes instinctively, for instance, when someone walks through the backyard. Just as an individual of one species cannot transcend the limits to behavior set by its evolutionary inheritance, so it cannot make adjustments for certain organic aberrations, particularly those just discussed. The nearly infinite possibility of training and retraining is a sigh of the great freedom enjoyed by most mammals in combining and recombining individual traits, including sensory and motor aspects. The traits themselves come from a limited repertoire, are not modifiable, and are invariably species-specific in their precise motor coordination and general execution.

由重要任意行為所產生培養的變體，這種說法並不矛盾。在籠子中擁擠的阻礙裡，紅斑在啄食，蜂鳴器的信號在空氣中跳躍（總之，使用任意策略至無限遠，一種動物都可以去執行）並不意味著我們可以培養個人的物種（例如，普遍的家貓）另一個物種去採取相同的動作行為模式，像是狗。雖然有完善的肌肉的同源性我們寧然不能培養出貓像狗一樣可以搖尾巴的特徵及其動作協調。也不能誘使貓發聲，在同一場合狗也會誘發發聲本能，例如，當某人走過後院。正如個別的物種不能超越它的的界限，以確定其進化行為的本質，因此不能作出調整某些器官變體，尤其是那些剛剛討論到的部份。幾乎以無限的培養的可能性和再培養一項偉大的自由驚嘆從中享有的最多哺乳動物的組合和重新組合的個人特徵，包括感覺和運動方面。特性本身來自一個有限的演奏曲目，是無法限定的，在其必然確切的動作協調和一般動作執行。

In Goethe’s words, addressing a developing being:

Nach dem Gesetz, wonach du angetreten.
So musst du seyn, dir kannst du nicht entfliehen,
So sagten schon Sibyllen, so Propheten;
Und jeine Zeit und keine Macht zerstűckelt
Georägte Form, die lebend sich entwichelt.


用歌德的話來敘述，追求發展中國家的生存：

Nach dem Gesetz, wonach du angetreten.
So musst du seyn, dir kannst du nicht entfliehen,
So sagten schon Sibyllen, so Propheten;
Und jeine Zeit und keine Macht zerstűckelt
Georägte Form, die lebend sich entwichelt.



*According to the law that summoned thee.
Thus must thou be, thy own thou canst not flee.
Thus spake the sibyls, thus the prophets:
And neither time nor might can deviate
Imprinted from alive developing.

Biological Matrix

Why Use Controls in a Biological Matrix?by Charles E. Pippenger, Ph.D.

Dr. Pippenger is semi-retired in Vermont and Adjunct Professor, Department of Neurology, University of Vermont, College of Medicine.

One of the major goals of every lab is to minimize the occurrence of lab errors. This requires that every lab be aware of potential sources of error that may occur in Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM).

UTAK was one of the very first sources of Antiepileptic (AED) controls in a biological matrix. Because of the quality of their products, in 1974, UTAK was selected to provide the controls for the Antiepileptic Drug Levels Quality Control Program established under the auspices of the Epilepsy Foundation of America. I'm delighted UTAK continues to recognize the importance of sharing quality control data in a timely fashion. The establishment of their P2P program for trace elements and its expansion into TDM has the potential to enhance interlaboratory communication and fill a great void which has existed for too long. Accurate analytical assays are the key to optimizing and personalizing patient care. Interlaboratory quality control programs and communication are key components of any analytical assay.

Why Use Controls in a Biological Matrix?by Charles E. Pippenger, Ph.D.

DeLee Lantz

DeLee (Dorothy) Lantz, Ph.D.,PSY

Biofeedback

Psychological Approaches to CHRONIC PAIN by DeLee Lantz, Ph.D.

Hans-Lukas Teuber

Brain and Cognitive Sciences 英文版

腦與認知科學 中文版

TEUBER (HANS-LUKAS) PAPERS

新遺傳學的應許與冒險

Philip Lieberman

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Philip Lieberman is a linguist at Brown University. Originally trained in phonetics, he wrote a dissertation on intonation. The remainder of his career has focused on topics in the evolution of language, and particularly the relationship between the evolution of the vocal tract and the evolution of speech and language. His work in this field stimulated considerable interest in this area.
Lieberman later became interested in photography and mountaineering, and has published on mountaineering in Switzerland.
He currently holds an endowed chair in the Department of Cognitive and Linguistic Sciences at Brown University, and is also a professor in the Department of Anthropology.

Philip Lieberman

Philip Lieberman 生平

LB 071-073T 怡萱

Ch2 IV. Conclusion

Comparison of man’s peripheral anatomy with that of other primates reveals a number of specializations of face bones and muscles especially in chimpanzee and gorilla does not render a study of anatomy useless in our attempts to understand the biological foundations of speech and language. The general configuration of the vocal tract has undergone geometric transformations in man which have a direct effect upon the acoustics of universal human speech sounds.

人類的外部解剖與其他靈長類動物比較之下，顯示了一些特別的人臉骨骼和肌肉，尤其是在黑猩猩和大猩猩，研究解剖的無效並不影響我們試圖了解生物的基礎語言。一般在人類聲帶的構造經歷了幾何變換，對於普遍語言的聽覺有直接影響的關係。

The alterations of the vocal tract that are specific to man can hardly be explained as adjustment to a different diet or as peculiar adaptations to any other vital function. Nevertheless, we do not attribute these peculiarities to any primeval need for communication or for making speech sounds, because such teleological arguments are repugnant to the scientific outlook. On the other hand, it is not impossible that some aspect of sound-making efficiency might not have played into the mechanisms of natural selection during the history of the species.

改變遺傳基質的聲帶道所特有的人很難被解釋為調整不同的飲食或特殊適應任何其他重要功能。儘管如此，我們並不把這些任何特殊屬性的溝通或發出聲音的行為當成原始需要，因為這些論點的目的是反對的科學展觀。另一方面，這不是不可能從某一些方面去決策健全的效率，在自然物種選擇歷史的過程中，有可能沒有發揮到機制。


Man’s central nervous system presents several innovations. Among them there is at least one that is directly related to language, namely the lateralization of function or, in other words, left-hemisphere dominance. In addition to the right to left displacement of function, there is also an antero-posterior polarization within the left hemisphere because anterior lesions disturb predominantly motor aspects of language, whereas the more posterior ones tend to involve predominantly sensory aspects. The histological differentiation of the cerebral cortex and the cortico-thalamic fiber-connections have no clearly demonstrable language specify. Language and speech are not merely represented in the cortex, but there seem to be language-correlated functions that also involve subcortical and mid-brain structures.

人的中樞神經系統提出了若干創新。其中至少有一個是直接相關的語言，即側化的功能，換言之，就是左西半球的主導地位。除了從右向左位移的功能，也有另ㄧ邊後側化後的左半球是因為先前損害干擾語言引擎的方面，而更後的往往涉及主要感官方面的問題。該組織分化的大腦皮質和皮質丘腦光纖連接沒有明顯的語言清楚地說明。語言和言語不只是代表的皮質，但似乎有語言的相關職能，也涉及皮質和中腦的結構。


The large size of the human brain cannot be attributed specifically to the exercise of language functions.
In general, it is not possible to assign any specific neuro-anatomic structure to the capacity for language. However, this capacity may be due to structural innovations on a molecular level. Language is probably due to the peculiar way in which the various parts of the brain work together or, in other words, to its peculiar function.

人類的大腦規模龐大，不能歸咎於具體行使的語言功能。 一般來說，語言是不可能指定任何特定的神經解剖結構的能力。但是，這種能力可能是由於體制創新的分子標準。語言可能是由於獨特的方式的各部分大腦共同努力，換言之，是大腦特有的功能。

Reference:

Ajuriaguerra, J. de and Hécaen, H. (1949), Le Cortex cerebral; étude neuro-psychopathologique. Masson, Paris.

Bailey, P., and Bonin, G. v. (1951), The Isocortex of the Chimpanzee. Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana.

Bailey, P., Bonin, G.v., and McCulloch, W. S. (1950), The Isocortex of the Chimpanzee. Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana.

Bailey, P., Buchanan, D. N., and Bucy, P.C. (1939), Intracranial Tumors of Infancy and Childhood. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Bailey, P. and Davis, E. W. (1942), Effects of lesions of the periaqueductal gray matter in the cat, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med. 51:305-306.

Bok, S.T. (1959), Histonomy of the Cerebral Cortex. Elsevier, Amsterdam.Bonin, G. von (1950), Essay on the Cerebral Cortex. C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.

Bonin, G. von (1962), Anatomical asymmetries of the cerebral hemispheres, in Interhemispheric Relations and Cerebral Dominance. V.B. Mountcastle (ed.), The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore.

Bonin, G. von and Bailey, P. (1961), Pattern of the cerebral isocortex, in Primatologia; Handbook of Primatology. H. Hofer, A. H. Schultz, and D. Starck (eds.), Karger, Basel.

Braus, H. (1954), Anatomie des Menschen, ein Lehrbuch für studierende Ärzte fortgeführt von Curt Elze (3rd ed.), Vol. I. Springer, Berlin.

Brodnitz, F. S. (1960), Speech after glossectomy, Curr. Probl. Phoniat. Logoper. 1:68-72.Campion, G. G. and Elliot-Smith, G. The Neutral Basis of Thought. Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York, 1934

Clark, W. E. Le Gros (1932), The structure and connections of the thalamus, Brain 55:406-470.Conrad, K. (1954), New problems of aphasia, Brain 77:491-509

Coppoletta, J. M. and Wolbach, S. B. (1933), Body length and organ weights of infants and children, Am. J. Pathol. 9:55-70.

Critchley, M. (1962), Speech and speecj-loss in relation to duality of the brain in Interhemispheric Relations and Cerebral Dominance, V. B. Mountcastle (ed.), pp.208-213. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Dodgson, M.C. H. (1962), The Growing Brain; An Essay in Developmental Neurology. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.

DuBrul, E. L. (1958), Evolution of the Speech Apparatus. C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.

Duckworth, W. L. H.(1910), A note on sections of the lips of the primates, J. Anat. And Physiol. 44: 348:-353.

Feremutsch, K. (1963), Thalamus, in Primatologia; Handbook of Primatology, H. Hofer, A. H. Schultz, and D. Starck (eds.), Vol. II, part 2, fasc. 6. Karger, Basel.

Fink, B. R. and Kirschner, F. (1959), Observations on the acoustical and mechanical properties of the vocal folds, Folia Phoniatria 11: 167-172.

Goldstein, K. (1942), After-effects of Brain Injuries in War; Their Evalution an dTreatment, Grune and Stratton, New York.

Guiot, G., Hertzog, E, Rondot , P., and Molina, P. (1961), Arrest or acceleration of speech evoked by thalamic stimulation in the course of stereotaxic procedures for Parkinsonism, Brain 84:363-380.

Hartmann-v. Monakow, K. (1965), Psychosyndrome und Sprachstoerungen nach stereotakischen Operationen beim Parkinson-Syndrome, Akt. Fragen Psychiat. Neurol. 2:87-100.

Heberer, G. (ed.) (1965), Menschliche Abstammungslehre; Fortschritte der Anthropogenie, 1863-1964. G. Fischer, Stuttgart.

Hofer, H. (1965), Die morphologische Analyse des Schädels des Menschen, in Menschliche Abstammungslehre, G. Heberer (ed.), Fischer, Stuttgart.

Huber, E. (1931), Evolution of Facial Musculature and Facial Expression. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Kaplan, H. M. (1960), Anatomy and Physiology of Speech. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Kelemen, G. (1938), Comparative anatomical studies on the junction of larynx and resonant tube, Acta oto-laryng. 26:276-283.

Kelemen, G. (1939), Vergleichende Anatomie und Physiologie der Stimmorgane, Arch, Sprache-Stimmheilk. 3:213-237

Kelemen, G. (1948), the anatomical basis of phonation in the chimpanzee, J. Morphol. 82:229-256.

Kelly, A. H., Beaton, L. E., and Magoun, H. W. (1946). A midbrain mechanism for facio-vocal activity, J. Neurophysiol. 9:181-189.

Kleinschmidt, A. (1938), Die Schulund-Kehlorgane des Gorillas “Bobby,” Morphol. Jahrb. 81:78.

Kleinschmidt, A. (1949-1950), Zur Anatomie des Kehlkopfes der Anthropoiden, Anat. Anz. 97:367-372.

Kreht, H. (1936), Cytoarchitektonik und motorisches Sprachzentrum, Z. Mikroskopischanat. Forsch. 39:331-354.

Kroeber, A. L. (1948), Anthropology. Harcourt. Brace and World, New York.

Kummer, B. (1953), Untersuchungen über die Entwicklung der Schädelform des Menschen und einiger Anthropoiden, in Abhandlungen z. Exakten Biologie. L. von Bertalanfly (ed.), Borntraeger, Berlin.

Lasheley, K. S. and Clark, G. (1946), The cytoarchitecture of the cerebral cortex of Ateles: A critical examination of architectonic studies, J. comp. Neurol. 85:223-305.

Lenneberg, E. H. (1962), Understanding language without ability to speak: a case report, J. Abnorm. Soc. Psycho. 65:419-425.

Lightoller G. S. (1925), Facial Muscles, J. Anat. 60:1-85.

Lightoller G. S. (1928), The facial muscles of three orang utans and two cercopithecidae, J. Anat. 63:19-81.

LB 463-464T 怡萱

Most workers on aphasia were content to consider language in terms of the memory and articulation of words, and they constructed complicated diagrams demonstrating the localization of language.20 Carl Wernicke exemplified the dominating trend of thought in the work on aphasia when he insisted that language must be considered in complete isolation from concept formation and intelligence. The reception and production of language must likewise be considered quite separately. There were undoubtedly many reasons for the reduction to “the simplest hypotheses” in the construction of models for language physiology.21 Wernicke hints at one of them, when he emphasized the difference between the localization advocated by the phrenologists and his own.22 [95]. In 1891 A Critical Study, Towards a Conceptualization of Aphasia was published by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). It demonstrated that the difference between Gall’s and Wernicke’s concept of localization was not a basic one. Just because,” will and intellect have been recognized as psychological technical terms… (one does not)…know with greater certainty that simple sense images are nothing more than such a technical term.” There is no justification for the assumption that the physiological correlate of a simple psychological element is also simple and localizable [96] Freud out.

大多數失語症的運作者必須考慮語言方面的記憶和表述的話的內容，他們建造複雜的圖表顯示了語言的定位.卡爾韋尼克認為失語症的運作型態是主導思潮，當他堅持認為，語言必須被視為在完全孤立從概念的形成和理解力。語言的容納和生產必須同樣被視為絕對分開運作。毫無疑問，減少許多原因是在於建設語言生理學模式，是“最簡單的假設”。韋尼克暗示其中一項，他強調差異定位所倡導的骨相學和他擁有的 。在1891年的批判性研究下，弗洛伊德出版了（ 1856年至1939年）建立一個失語的概念化。這顯示戈爾和韋尼克之間的區別和定位的概念不是一個基本的面向。只是因為， “意志和智慧已被確認為心理技術術語... ...知道更大的確定性，簡單意義上的圖像只不過是這樣一個技術術語。弗洛伊德指出: ”沒有任何理由假設，是一個簡單的心理因素也是簡單和定位是和生理相關的。

He had touched the weakest spot of the aphasia theories by demonstrating that the so-called physiology of language was no more than a translation of psychological insights into physiological terms. In their attempt to consider the biological basis of language without becoming involved in psychology, the workers on aphasia had introduced their own psychology in physiological terms.23

他曾觸及不充分的失語症的理論表明，所謂的語言生理是只是一個心理的翻譯來洞察生理條件。在他們的企圖考慮生物學基礎的語言並沒有捲入心理學，而失語症的人在術語.23介紹了自己的心理和生理。


If nothing else, the basic importance of the brain for language function had been established by the work done on aphasia. Yet neither the brain nor aphasia was even mentioned in one of the most important books on language, published in 1891 by Georg von der Gabelentz (1840-1893). In speaking of the biological basis of man’s language capacity, he only mentioned the upright posture and man’s unencumbered chest as factors which may have facilitated development of language in the human species. The psychological origin of language was sought in jealousy, boredom, playfulness or other mental and physical needs. Linguistics should not be a natural science, and only man’s ability to order his thoughts could be profitably subjected to the method of scientific psychology. The most important function of language, the expression of connected thoughts and concepts, could only be studied by means of logical analysis and metaphysics [97]. Steinthal’s hope that language would be considered in a broader frame had not been realized in linguistics.

如果沒有其他的功能，大腦語言功能的基本重要性已經由失語症的運作完成建立。然而無論是大腦也不是失語症中，提到的一本最重要的語言書籍，出版於1891年由喬治馮德加貝倫茨（ 1840至1893年） 。在談到生物學基礎上人的語言能力，他只提到了直立的姿勢和人的支配胸部的因素可能有利於人類物種在語言上的發展。心理起源的語言是尋求嫉妒，無聊，遊戲或其他精神和肉體的需要。而語言學不應該是一個自然的科學，只有人有能力去命令腦中想法，這樣可以獲得科學心理的方法。語言最重要的功能，是表達的聯繫思想和概念，這樣僅僅是研究邏輯分析方法和形而上學。施泰因塔爾希望，將語言在更廣泛的範圍內去實現語言學。

LB 394-395T 怡萱

CH 9. Ⅴ.
With respect to language, we should like to know how narrowly defined the biological matrix is. This is entirely an empirical question, and the objective is not to find out whether the environment is necessary (it clearly is) and not even how much or what it contributes to the development of language (the answers are almost too obvious to deserve much attention)；the only thoroughly interesting problem here is to discover the range of possible alternatives to the common modes of internal organization for language processing. At present, we have only indirect clues (language universals, common age for language onset, and a universal strategy for language acquisition), and these point to great specificity of the underlying matrix.

至於語言方面，我們要知道如何嚴格界定生物矩陣。這完全是一個經驗性的問題，目標不是找出發展語言是否需要環境（這是顯而易見的）和甚至有多少或什麼方式有助於發展語言（答案幾乎明顯到值得重視） ;這個唯一有趣的問題是，要發現各種可能替代共同的內部組織語言處理的模式。目前，我們只能用間接線索（語言共通性，語言開始的共同年齡，和一個語言習得普遍的策酪） ，這些是基本矩陣的重大特殊指向。


In the light of these comments we may ask now,” Just what is postulated to be innate in language behavior?” Essentially the modes of categorization as discussed in Chapter Seven and Eight. This is an aspect of the latent structure. Innate also is the general mode actualization process but no particular aspect of the realized structure. Thus, no features that are characteristic of only certain natural languages, either particulars of syntax, or phonology, or semantics, are assumed here to be innate. However, there are many reasons to believe that the processes by which the realized, outer structure of a natural language comes about are deeply-rooted, species-specific, innate properties of man's biological nature.

根據這些意見，我們現在可能會問: “究竟什麼是是天生的語言行為的必要條件？ ”第七章和第八章中討論分類方式的本質。這是一個潛在結構的面向。先天也是一般模式實現的過程，但沒有特別去實現結構的面向。因此，只有限於自然語言中的功能和特點，無論是細部的句法，或音韻，或語意，在這裡假設語言是天生的。然而，有許多理由可以相信這些實現的過程，像是外部結構的一種自然的語言來的是根深蒂固的，具體的物種情況，人類生物性質的天生特性。

REFERENCES

Chomsky, N.(1963), Formal properties of grammars, in Handbook of Mathematical psychology, R. D, Luce, R. R. Bush, and E. Galanter(eds.), Vol. II, John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Chonsky, N. and Miller, G. A.(1963), Introduction to the formal analysis of natural languages, in Handbooks of Mathematical Psychology, R. D. Luce, R. R. Bush, and E. Galanter(eds.), Vol.II, John Wikey and Sons, New York.

Cowgill, W.(1963), A search for universals in Indo-European diachronic morphology, in Universals of Language, J. H. Greenberg(ed.), M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass.

Hockett, C. F.(1950), Age-grading and linguistic continuity, Language 26:449-457.

Hoenigswald, H. M. (1963), Are there universals of linguistic change? in Universals of Language, J. H. Greenberg(ed.), M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass.

Miller, G. A. and Chomsky, N. (1963), Finitary models of language users , in Handbook of Mathematical psychology, R. D, Luce, R. R. Bush, and E. Galanter(eds.), Vol. II, John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Sapir, E. (1921), Language : an introduction to the study of speech, Harcourt, Brace and World, New York

LB Preface Para 6-7 T 伊津 怡萱

Preface Para. 6. 7
Ideas do not grow in vacuo. Throughout my fifteen years of residence in the Cambridge area, I have greatly profited from courses taken and given, from conversations, and from general interaction with colleagues and students. I wish to mention particularly Gorge v. Bekesy, Roger Brown, Jerome Bruner, Noam Chomsky, George Gardner, George Miller, and Peter Wolff. All of them have discussed various aspects of this book with me, and most have read and commented upon several chapters or the entire manuscript. I am also indebted to Hans-Lukas Teuber for critically reading Chapters one and five; to A. H Schultz and George Erikson for advising me on Chapter two; to Philip Liberman and Arthur House for commenting on Chapter three; to M. Kinsbourne for reading chapter four; to Charles Gross and Peter Huttenlocher for criticisms of Chapter five; to H. Burla, Hans Kalmus, and Ernst Mayr for reading various versions of Chapter six; and to DeLee Latz for comments and criticisms on Chapter eight.

想法並非憑空而來。住在劍橋的期間，上課與聽課時與同事和學生的交流，使我獲益良多。我要特別感謝Georg v। Békésy,Roger Brown, Jerome Bruner, Noam Chomsky, George Gardner, George Miller, 還有 Peter Wolff。 他們皆與我討論過書中的許多部份，大多數人曾評論或閱讀過好幾個章節或整個手稿。我也要感謝Hans-Lukas Teuber，謝謝他對第一章和第五章的批評指教; 還要感謝 A। H Schultz 和 George Erikson， 他們給了許多第二章的建議;感謝 Philip Liberman and Arthur House 評論了第三章; 感謝 M। Kinsbourne閱讀第四章; 感謝Charles Gross和 Peter Huttenlocher 對第五章的批評; 感謝H। Burla, Hans Kalmus和 Ernst Mayr 閱讀了第六章的各個版本;感謝 DeLee Lantz 對第八章的評論與批評。

Most of my research reported here was carried out under the auspices of The Children’s Hospital Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, the Psychological Laboratories, and the Center for Cognitive Studies oh Harvard University, and it is a pleasure to acknowledge their generous hospitality here।

在兒童醫院醫療中心、哈佛醫學院、院中的心理實驗室和哈佛大學認知研究中心的贊助之下，在這些地方完成了我書本中大多數的研究報告，由衷地感謝這些機構為此研究熱情的款待。