Natural Language Processing Enabling machines to understand and respond to what people mean, so they can interact with a computer naturally – without having to adapt their behavior to a computer's limitations.
Resolving ambiguities in written and spoken language requires analyzing grammar, concepts, context, and human knowledge. For example:
"The company is ready to sell” is not easy for a computer to understand because the sentence is syntactically ambiguous – is the company opening for business, or does it want to be acquired?
Resolving this ambiguity requires understanding the context: is the sentence in the middle of an article on mergers and acquisitions? Or is the sentence followed by “Its shelves are stocked with all the hot products"? This succeeding sentence is helpful only if the computer understands that the possessive pronoun “its” refers to the company, and that “stocked” and “products” are more relevant to selling goods than to being acquired.
19.1
-Sound produced
-Physical construct
-Language and linguistic structure
19.1.1 Language as a formal system
-language and linguistic structure as” things
-set of sentence
19.1.2 Language as physical reality
-analogous to that of electrons in physics
-stream of speech
19.1.3language as a psychological reality
-mental code
-language process
2008年6月12日 星期四
7 Issue of Phonological Cpmplexity
˙in the first three comparison syllable structure is compared with the segment inventory variables
˙Two measures of vowel inventory shows a systematic relationship with syllable complexity.
˙Posthoc comparisons show that only the comparison between none and complex reaches significance
˙The final comparison is between the two categories variables reflecting complexity of syllable structure and tone system.
˙Post hoc
Post hoc is a Latin phrase, meaning "after this" or "after the event". It may refer to:
Post hoc ergo propter hoc, a logical fallacy
Post-hoc analysis, a form of statistical analysis
˙Fallacy: Post Hoc
Reference: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/post-hoc.html
˙Two measures of vowel inventory shows a systematic relationship with syllable complexity.
˙Posthoc comparisons show that only the comparison between none and complex reaches significance
˙The final comparison is between the two categories variables reflecting complexity of syllable structure and tone system.
˙Post hoc
Post hoc is a Latin phrase, meaning "after this" or "after the event". It may refer to:
Post hoc ergo propter hoc, a logical fallacy
Post-hoc analysis, a form of statistical analysis
˙Fallacy: Post Hoc
Reference: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/post-hoc.html
18 Controlled and Mechanical Properties
18.1Experimental approch
A.many of the properties encoded in the target pronunciation are manifested in the temporal domain
B.most of these properties are language-specific and are not phonetic universals resulting from vocal tract constraints
C. these effects are used by listeners in speech perception
D. perception constrains motor strategies, intended properties will be rescaled in duration across different rate and prosodic variations
18.2 Vowel Nasalization
Vowel Nasalization in American English /PDF 6-10 August 2007
A.many of the properties encoded in the target pronunciation are manifested in the temporal domain
B.most of these properties are language-specific and are not phonetic universals resulting from vocal tract constraints
C. these effects are used by listeners in speech perception
D. perception constrains motor strategies, intended properties will be rescaled in duration across different rate and prosodic variations
18.2 Vowel Nasalization
Vowel Nasalization in American English /PDF 6-10 August 2007
9 Perception , Variation, and Sound Change
Sound change
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with phonological change. (Discuss)
This article does not cite any references or sources. (November 2006)Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.
Note: This page or section contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See Help:IPA for a pronunciation key.
Sound change includes any processes of language change that affect pronunciation (phonetic change) or word structures (phonemic change). Sound change can consist of the replacement of one speech sound (or, more generally, one phonetic feature) by another, the complete loss of the affected sound, and (rarely) even the introduction of a new sound in a place where there previously was none. Sound changes can be environmentally conditioned, meaning that the change in question only occurs in a defined sound environment, whereas in other environments the same speech sound is not affected by the change.
Sound change is assumed to be usually regular, which means that it is expected to apply mechanically whenever its structural condition is met, irrespective of any non-phonological factors (such as the meaning of the words affected). On the other hand, sound changes can sometimes be sporadic, affecting only one particular word or a few words, without any seeming regularity.
Of regular sound changes, the somewhat hyperbolic term sound law is also sometimes used. This term was introduced by the Neogrammarian school in the 19th century and is still commonly applied to some historically important sound changes, such as Grimm's law. While real-world sound changes often admit of exceptions (for a variety of known reasons, and sometimes without a known reason), the expectation of their regularity or "exceptionlessness" is of great heuristic value, since it allows historical linguists to define the notion of regular correspondence (see: comparative method).
Each sound change is limited in space and time. It means it functions within a specified area (only in some dialects) and within a specified period of time. These limitations are some of the reasons for which some scholars refuse using the term "sound law" (asserting that laws should not have such spatial and temporal limitations) and replace it with phonetic rule.
Contents
1 The formal notation of sound change
2 Principles of sound change
3 Terms for changes in pronunciation
4 Examples of specific historical sound changes
5 External links
˙LNG 201/ENGL 202Prof. G. Steinberg Sound Changes
˙Contextual Variations in Implicit Evaluation /PDF
Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_change
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with phonological change. (Discuss)
This article does not cite any references or sources. (November 2006)Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.
Note: This page or section contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See Help:IPA for a pronunciation key.
Sound change includes any processes of language change that affect pronunciation (phonetic change) or word structures (phonemic change). Sound change can consist of the replacement of one speech sound (or, more generally, one phonetic feature) by another, the complete loss of the affected sound, and (rarely) even the introduction of a new sound in a place where there previously was none. Sound changes can be environmentally conditioned, meaning that the change in question only occurs in a defined sound environment, whereas in other environments the same speech sound is not affected by the change.
Sound change is assumed to be usually regular, which means that it is expected to apply mechanically whenever its structural condition is met, irrespective of any non-phonological factors (such as the meaning of the words affected). On the other hand, sound changes can sometimes be sporadic, affecting only one particular word or a few words, without any seeming regularity.
Of regular sound changes, the somewhat hyperbolic term sound law is also sometimes used. This term was introduced by the Neogrammarian school in the 19th century and is still commonly applied to some historically important sound changes, such as Grimm's law. While real-world sound changes often admit of exceptions (for a variety of known reasons, and sometimes without a known reason), the expectation of their regularity or "exceptionlessness" is of great heuristic value, since it allows historical linguists to define the notion of regular correspondence (see: comparative method).
Each sound change is limited in space and time. It means it functions within a specified area (only in some dialects) and within a specified period of time. These limitations are some of the reasons for which some scholars refuse using the term "sound law" (asserting that laws should not have such spatial and temporal limitations) and replace it with phonetic rule.
Contents
1 The formal notation of sound change
2 Principles of sound change
3 Terms for changes in pronunciation
4 Examples of specific historical sound changes
5 External links
˙LNG 201/ENGL 202Prof. G. Steinberg Sound Changes
˙Contextual Variations in Implicit Evaluation /PDF
Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_change
2008年6月5日 星期四
2008年5月29日 星期四
Prosodic Phonology
What is the important question in ponology
1. What is the sound system in phonology?
2. How is the tone and intonation act in phonology?
3. What is the experimental method in phonology?
4. how is the different in phonology about frame work: psychology、sociology and physics?
5. How is the frequency act in phonology?
6. What is the articulatory difference?
7. What is a phonological universal?
8. What are the language effects?
What is phonology?
Definition
Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages
Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It is related to other aspects such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
Comparison: Phonology and phonetics
Phonetics …
1.Is the basis for phonological analysis.
2.Analyzes the production of all human speech sounds, regardless of language.
Phonology …
1.Is the basis for further work in morphology, syntax, discourse, and orthography design.
2.Analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by
˙determining which phonetic sounds are significant, and
˙explaining how these sounds are interpreted by the native speaker.
2. How is the tone and intonation act in phonology?
3. What is the experimental method in phonology?
4. how is the different in phonology about frame work: psychology、sociology and physics?
5. How is the frequency act in phonology?
6. What is the articulatory difference?
7. What is a phonological universal?
8. What are the language effects?
What is phonology?
Definition
Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages
Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It is related to other aspects such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
Comparison: Phonology and phonetics
Phonetics …
1.Is the basis for phonological analysis.
2.Analyzes the production of all human speech sounds, regardless of language.
Phonology …
1.Is the basis for further work in morphology, syntax, discourse, and orthography design.
2.Analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by
˙determining which phonetic sounds are significant, and
˙explaining how these sounds are interpreted by the native speaker.
2008年5月1日 星期四
5.2.1
1.formants
A formant is a peak in the frequency spectrum of a sound caused by acoustic resonance.[1] In phonetics, the word refers to sounds produced by the vocal tract. In acoustics, it refers to resonance in sound sources, notably musical instruments, as well as that of sound chambers. However, it is equally valid to talk about the formant frequencies of the air in a room, as exploited, for example, by Alvin Lucier in his piece I Am Sitting in a Room.
Formant and phonetics
2.F-pattern
What is the F-pattern?
The F-pattern for a consonant is determines by the place, degree, and shape of the main oral constriction, and by the tongue and lip configuration required by the following vowel. There’s basically one global gesture for manipulating F1 frequency, two local gestures for F2, and three precise gestures for F3. Fine movements are required to manipulate the upper formant.
A formant is a peak in the frequency spectrum of a sound caused by acoustic resonance.[1] In phonetics, the word refers to sounds produced by the vocal tract. In acoustics, it refers to resonance in sound sources, notably musical instruments, as well as that of sound chambers. However, it is equally valid to talk about the formant frequencies of the air in a room, as exploited, for example, by Alvin Lucier in his piece I Am Sitting in a Room.
Formant and phonetics
2.F-pattern
What is the F-pattern?
The F-pattern for a consonant is determines by the place, degree, and shape of the main oral constriction, and by the tongue and lip configuration required by the following vowel. There’s basically one global gesture for manipulating F1 frequency, two local gestures for F2, and three precise gestures for F3. Fine movements are required to manipulate the upper formant.
2008年3月27日 星期四
2008年3月6日 星期四
Preface & Ch1 --- Methods in Phonology
Preface
˙The use of experimental methods in phonology has created a research environment in which rigorous argumentation often depends on integrating data from an array of traditionally distinct disciplines.
1. What is the contest of this book?
2. What is the purpose of the conference?
˙John J. Ohala
˙Methods in phonology
˙The empirical methods
˙Phonology inquiry
˙One focus
˙First
Phonology is addressing increasingly diverse questions about the structure of grammars and the representation of sound patterns in the mind and brain.
˙Second
Technologies relevant to phonological inquiry continue to evolve, as does the availability of large-scale linguistic corpora.
˙Third
There is growing recognition that phonological inquiry should be embedded within a framework informed by the biological, social, and cognitive sciences.
˙Fourth
A clear demonstration that we understand phonetic and phonological principles is the ability to model relevant behaviors and patters.
˙Second focus
(1) Explaining phonological universe.
(2)Understanding the phonetic factors that may give rise to phonological change.
(3) Maintaining, enhancing, and modeling phonological contract
(4) assessing phonological knowledge
˙Partⅰ
Delineate various theoretical considerations and provide background concerning the application of methods from other sciences.
˙partⅱ
The “phonological universals”, are concerned with providing explanations for the similarities that hold across the sound systems of many of the world’s language.
˙partⅲ
“Phonetic variation and phonological change”, use experimental methods to illustrate the principle that sound changes due to universal phonetic and cognitive factors have their origins in synchronic variation.
˙partⅳ
“Modeling, Maintaining, and Enhancing Phonological Contrast”, address how phonological contrasts or features can be modeled and how they are manifested in the phonetic domain.
˙partⅴ
“Phonotactic and phonological knowledge”, demonstrate the use of psycholinguistic, phonetic, and corpora-based methods to test fundamental claims concerning speakers’ and listeners’ knowledge of phonological processes and representations.
Ch1 -- Methods in Phonology
˙Introduction
The focus on methodology, rather than exclusively on particular theories or questions is that methodology has in determining the scientific rigor and maturity if a discipline.
Questions, Answers, Method
˙The question it asks;
˙The answers given to the questions, that is, hypotheses or theories;
˙The methods used to marshal evidence in support of the theories
Questions
˙Those questions explain how speech evolved.
Theories
˙the sound change represented a continual competition between the goals of making speech easier to produce and making it easier to perceive, both of which involve teleological elements.
˙the role played by listeners’' misperception or misparsings of the speech signal, eliminating a teleological element.
Methods
˙First, to present data in an objective way
˙Second, in a quantified way
˙Third, to present evidence that overcomes doubt as to its relevance to a particular hypothesis or theory
˙Finally, the way to overcome doubt is to gather the data with controls
˙The use of experimental methods in phonology has created a research environment in which rigorous argumentation often depends on integrating data from an array of traditionally distinct disciplines.
1. What is the contest of this book?
2. What is the purpose of the conference?
˙John J. Ohala
˙Methods in phonology
˙The empirical methods
˙Phonology inquiry
˙One focus
˙First
Phonology is addressing increasingly diverse questions about the structure of grammars and the representation of sound patterns in the mind and brain.
˙Second
Technologies relevant to phonological inquiry continue to evolve, as does the availability of large-scale linguistic corpora.
˙Third
There is growing recognition that phonological inquiry should be embedded within a framework informed by the biological, social, and cognitive sciences.
˙Fourth
A clear demonstration that we understand phonetic and phonological principles is the ability to model relevant behaviors and patters.
˙Second focus
(1) Explaining phonological universe.
(2)Understanding the phonetic factors that may give rise to phonological change.
(3) Maintaining, enhancing, and modeling phonological contract
(4) assessing phonological knowledge
˙Partⅰ
Delineate various theoretical considerations and provide background concerning the application of methods from other sciences.
˙partⅱ
The “phonological universals”, are concerned with providing explanations for the similarities that hold across the sound systems of many of the world’s language.
˙partⅲ
“Phonetic variation and phonological change”, use experimental methods to illustrate the principle that sound changes due to universal phonetic and cognitive factors have their origins in synchronic variation.
˙partⅳ
“Modeling, Maintaining, and Enhancing Phonological Contrast”, address how phonological contrasts or features can be modeled and how they are manifested in the phonetic domain.
˙partⅴ
“Phonotactic and phonological knowledge”, demonstrate the use of psycholinguistic, phonetic, and corpora-based methods to test fundamental claims concerning speakers’ and listeners’ knowledge of phonological processes and representations.
Ch1 -- Methods in Phonology
˙Introduction
The focus on methodology, rather than exclusively on particular theories or questions is that methodology has in determining the scientific rigor and maturity if a discipline.
Questions, Answers, Method
˙The question it asks;
˙The answers given to the questions, that is, hypotheses or theories;
˙The methods used to marshal evidence in support of the theories
Questions
˙Those questions explain how speech evolved.
Theories
˙the sound change represented a continual competition between the goals of making speech easier to produce and making it easier to perceive, both of which involve teleological elements.
˙the role played by listeners’' misperception or misparsings of the speech signal, eliminating a teleological element.
Methods
˙First, to present data in an objective way
˙Second, in a quantified way
˙Third, to present evidence that overcomes doubt as to its relevance to a particular hypothesis or theory
˙Finally, the way to overcome doubt is to gather the data with controls
