2008年11月25日 星期二
2008年11月5日 星期三
Philip Lieberman
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Philip Lieberman is a linguist at Brown University. Originally trained in phonetics, he wrote a dissertation on intonation. The remainder of his career has focused on topics in the evolution of language, and particularly the relationship between the evolution of the vocal tract and the evolution of speech and language. His work in this field stimulated considerable interest in this area.
Lieberman later became interested in photography and mountaineering, and has published on mountaineering in Switzerland.
He currently holds an endowed chair in the Department of Cognitive and Linguistic Sciences at Brown University, and is also a professor in the Department of Anthropology.
Philip Lieberman is a linguist at Brown University. Originally trained in phonetics, he wrote a dissertation on intonation. The remainder of his career has focused on topics in the evolution of language, and particularly the relationship between the evolution of the vocal tract and the evolution of speech and language. His work in this field stimulated considerable interest in this area.
Lieberman later became interested in photography and mountaineering, and has published on mountaineering in Switzerland.
He currently holds an endowed chair in the Department of Cognitive and Linguistic Sciences at Brown University, and is also a professor in the Department of Anthropology.
2008年10月28日 星期二
LB 071-073T 怡萱
Ch2 IV. Conclusion
Comparison of man’s peripheral anatomy with that of other primates reveals a number of specializations of face bones and muscles especially in chimpanzee and gorilla does not render a study of anatomy useless in our attempts to understand the biological foundations of speech and language. The general configuration of the vocal tract has undergone geometric transformations in man which have a direct effect upon the acoustics of universal human speech sounds.
人類的外部解剖與其他靈長類動物比較之下，顯示了一些特別的人臉骨骼和肌肉，尤其是在黑猩猩和大猩猩，研究解剖的無效並不影響我們試圖了解生物的基礎語言。一般在人類聲帶的構造經歷了幾何變換，對於普遍語言的聽覺有直接影響的關係。
The alterations of the vocal tract that are specific to man can hardly be explained as adjustment to a different diet or as peculiar adaptations to any other vital function. Nevertheless, we do not attribute these peculiarities to any primeval need for communication or for making speech sounds, because such teleological arguments are repugnant to the scientific outlook. On the other hand, it is not impossible that some aspect of sound-making efficiency might not have played into the mechanisms of natural selection during the history of the species.
改變遺傳基質的聲帶道所特有的人很難被解釋為調整不同的飲食或特殊適應任何其他重要功能。儘管如此，我們並不把這些任何特殊屬性的溝通或發出聲音的行為當成原始需要，因為這些論點的目的是反對的科學展觀。另一方面，這不是不可能從某一些方面去決策健全的效率，在自然物種選擇歷史的過程中，有可能沒有發揮到機制。
Man’s central nervous system presents several innovations. Among them there is at least one that is directly related to language, namely the lateralization of function or, in other words, left-hemisphere dominance. In addition to the right to left displacement of function, there is also an antero-posterior polarization within the left hemisphere because anterior lesions disturb predominantly motor aspects of language, whereas the more posterior ones tend to involve predominantly sensory aspects. The histological differentiation of the cerebral cortex and the cortico-thalamic fiber-connections have no clearly demonstrable language specify. Language and speech are not merely represented in the cortex, but there seem to be language-correlated functions that also involve subcortical and mid-brain structures.
人的中樞神經系統提出了若干創新。其中至少有一個是直接相關的語言，即側化的功能，換言之，就是左西半球的主導地位。除了從右向左位移的功能，也有另ㄧ邊後側化後的左半球是因為先前損害干擾語言引擎的方面，而更後的往往涉及主要感官方面的問題。該組織分化的大腦皮質和皮質丘腦光纖連接沒有明顯的語言清楚地說明。語言和言語不只是代表的皮質，但似乎有語言的相關職能，也涉及皮質和中腦的結構。
The large size of the human brain cannot be attributed specifically to the exercise of language functions.
In general, it is not possible to assign any specific neuro-anatomic structure to the capacity for language. However, this capacity may be due to structural innovations on a molecular level. Language is probably due to the peculiar way in which the various parts of the brain work together or, in other words, to its peculiar function.
人類的大腦規模龐大，不能歸咎於具體行使的語言功能。 一般來說，語言是不可能指定任何特定的神經解剖結構的能力。但是，這種能力可能是由於體制創新的分子標準。語言可能是由於獨特的方式的各部分大腦共同努力，換言之，是大腦特有的功能。
Comparison of man’s peripheral anatomy with that of other primates reveals a number of specializations of face bones and muscles especially in chimpanzee and gorilla does not render a study of anatomy useless in our attempts to understand the biological foundations of speech and language. The general configuration of the vocal tract has undergone geometric transformations in man which have a direct effect upon the acoustics of universal human speech sounds.
人類的外部解剖與其他靈長類動物比較之下，顯示了一些特別的人臉骨骼和肌肉，尤其是在黑猩猩和大猩猩，研究解剖的無效並不影響我們試圖了解生物的基礎語言。一般在人類聲帶的構造經歷了幾何變換，對於普遍語言的聽覺有直接影響的關係。
The alterations of the vocal tract that are specific to man can hardly be explained as adjustment to a different diet or as peculiar adaptations to any other vital function. Nevertheless, we do not attribute these peculiarities to any primeval need for communication or for making speech sounds, because such teleological arguments are repugnant to the scientific outlook. On the other hand, it is not impossible that some aspect of sound-making efficiency might not have played into the mechanisms of natural selection during the history of the species.
改變遺傳基質的聲帶道所特有的人很難被解釋為調整不同的飲食或特殊適應任何其他重要功能。儘管如此，我們並不把這些任何特殊屬性的溝通或發出聲音的行為當成原始需要，因為這些論點的目的是反對的科學展觀。另一方面，這不是不可能從某一些方面去決策健全的效率，在自然物種選擇歷史的過程中，有可能沒有發揮到機制。
Man’s central nervous system presents several innovations. Among them there is at least one that is directly related to language, namely the lateralization of function or, in other words, left-hemisphere dominance. In addition to the right to left displacement of function, there is also an antero-posterior polarization within the left hemisphere because anterior lesions disturb predominantly motor aspects of language, whereas the more posterior ones tend to involve predominantly sensory aspects. The histological differentiation of the cerebral cortex and the cortico-thalamic fiber-connections have no clearly demonstrable language specify. Language and speech are not merely represented in the cortex, but there seem to be language-correlated functions that also involve subcortical and mid-brain structures.
人的中樞神經系統提出了若干創新。其中至少有一個是直接相關的語言，即側化的功能，換言之，就是左西半球的主導地位。除了從右向左位移的功能，也有另ㄧ邊後側化後的左半球是因為先前損害干擾語言引擎的方面，而更後的往往涉及主要感官方面的問題。該組織分化的大腦皮質和皮質丘腦光纖連接沒有明顯的語言清楚地說明。語言和言語不只是代表的皮質，但似乎有語言的相關職能，也涉及皮質和中腦的結構。
The large size of the human brain cannot be attributed specifically to the exercise of language functions.
In general, it is not possible to assign any specific neuro-anatomic structure to the capacity for language. However, this capacity may be due to structural innovations on a molecular level. Language is probably due to the peculiar way in which the various parts of the brain work together or, in other words, to its peculiar function.
人類的大腦規模龐大，不能歸咎於具體行使的語言功能。 一般來說，語言是不可能指定任何特定的神經解剖結構的能力。但是，這種能力可能是由於體制創新的分子標準。語言可能是由於獨特的方式的各部分大腦共同努力，換言之，是大腦特有的功能。
Reference:
Ajuriaguerra, J. de and Hécaen, H. (1949), Le Cortex cerebral; étude neuro-psychopathologique. Masson, Paris.
Bailey, P., and Bonin, G. v. (1951), The Isocortex of the Chimpanzee. Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Bailey, P., Bonin, G.v., and McCulloch, W. S. (1950), The Isocortex of the Chimpanzee. Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Bailey, P., Buchanan, D. N., and Bucy, P.C. (1939), Intracranial Tumors of Infancy and Childhood. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Bailey, P. and Davis, E. W. (1942), Effects of lesions of the periaqueductal gray matter in the cat, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med. 51:305-306.
Bok, S.T. (1959), Histonomy of the Cerebral Cortex. Elsevier, Amsterdam.Bonin, G. von (1950), Essay on the Cerebral Cortex. C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.
Bonin, G. von (1962), Anatomical asymmetries of the cerebral hemispheres, in Interhemispheric Relations and Cerebral Dominance. V.B. Mountcastle (ed.), The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore.
Bonin, G. von and Bailey, P. (1961), Pattern of the cerebral isocortex, in Primatologia; Handbook of Primatology. H. Hofer, A. H. Schultz, and D. Starck (eds.), Karger, Basel.
Braus, H. (1954), Anatomie des Menschen, ein Lehrbuch für studierende Ärzte fortgeführt von Curt Elze (3rd ed.), Vol. I. Springer, Berlin.
Brodnitz, F. S. (1960), Speech after glossectomy, Curr. Probl. Phoniat. Logoper. 1:68-72.Campion, G. G. and Elliot-Smith, G. The Neutral Basis of Thought. Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York, 1934
Clark, W. E. Le Gros (1932), The structure and connections of the thalamus, Brain 55:406-470.Conrad, K. (1954), New problems of aphasia, Brain 77:491-509
Coppoletta, J. M. and Wolbach, S. B. (1933), Body length and organ weights of infants and children, Am. J. Pathol. 9:55-70.
Critchley, M. (1962), Speech and speecj-loss in relation to duality of the brain in Interhemispheric Relations and Cerebral Dominance, V. B. Mountcastle (ed.), pp.208-213. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
Dodgson, M.C. H. (1962), The Growing Brain; An Essay in Developmental Neurology. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.
DuBrul, E. L. (1958), Evolution of the Speech Apparatus. C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.
Duckworth, W. L. H.(1910), A note on sections of the lips of the primates, J. Anat. And Physiol. 44: 348:-353.
Feremutsch, K. (1963), Thalamus, in Primatologia; Handbook of Primatology, H. Hofer, A. H. Schultz, and D. Starck (eds.), Vol. II, part 2, fasc. 6. Karger, Basel.
Fink, B. R. and Kirschner, F. (1959), Observations on the acoustical and mechanical properties of the vocal folds, Folia Phoniatria 11: 167-172.
Goldstein, K. (1942), After-effects of Brain Injuries in War; Their Evalution an dTreatment, Grune and Stratton, New York.
Guiot, G., Hertzog, E, Rondot , P., and Molina, P. (1961), Arrest or acceleration of speech evoked by thalamic stimulation in the course of stereotaxic procedures for Parkinsonism, Brain 84:363-380.
Hartmann-v. Monakow, K. (1965), Psychosyndrome und Sprachstoerungen nach stereotakischen Operationen beim Parkinson-Syndrome, Akt. Fragen Psychiat. Neurol. 2:87-100.
Heberer, G. (ed.) (1965), Menschliche Abstammungslehre; Fortschritte der Anthropogenie, 1863-1964. G. Fischer, Stuttgart.
Hofer, H. (1965), Die morphologische Analyse des Schädels des Menschen, in Menschliche Abstammungslehre, G. Heberer (ed.), Fischer, Stuttgart.
Huber, E. (1931), Evolution of Facial Musculature and Facial Expression. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
Kaplan, H. M. (1960), Anatomy and Physiology of Speech. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Kelemen, G. (1938), Comparative anatomical studies on the junction of larynx and resonant tube, Acta oto-laryng. 26:276-283.
Kelemen, G. (1939), Vergleichende Anatomie und Physiologie der Stimmorgane, Arch, Sprache-Stimmheilk. 3:213-237
Kelemen, G. (1948), the anatomical basis of phonation in the chimpanzee, J. Morphol. 82:229-256.
Kelly, A. H., Beaton, L. E., and Magoun, H. W. (1946). A midbrain mechanism for facio-vocal activity, J. Neurophysiol. 9:181-189.
Kleinschmidt, A. (1938), Die Schulund-Kehlorgane des Gorillas “Bobby,” Morphol. Jahrb. 81:78.
Kleinschmidt, A. (1949-1950), Zur Anatomie des Kehlkopfes der Anthropoiden, Anat. Anz. 97:367-372.
Kreht, H. (1936), Cytoarchitektonik und motorisches Sprachzentrum, Z. Mikroskopischanat. Forsch. 39:331-354.
Kroeber, A. L. (1948), Anthropology. Harcourt. Brace and World, New York.
Kummer, B. (1953), Untersuchungen über die Entwicklung der Schädelform des Menschen und einiger Anthropoiden, in Abhandlungen z. Exakten Biologie. L. von Bertalanfly (ed.), Borntraeger, Berlin.
Lasheley, K. S. and Clark, G. (1946), The cytoarchitecture of the cerebral cortex of Ateles: A critical examination of architectonic studies, J. comp. Neurol. 85:223-305.
Lenneberg, E. H. (1962), Understanding language without ability to speak: a case report, J. Abnorm. Soc. Psycho. 65:419-425.
Lightoller G. S. (1925), Facial Muscles, J. Anat. 60:1-85.
Lightoller G. S. (1928), The facial muscles of three orang utans and two cercopithecidae, J. Anat. 63:19-81.
2008年10月8日 星期三
LB 463-464T 怡萱
Most workers on aphasia were content to consider language in terms of the memory and articulation of words, and they constructed complicated diagrams demonstrating the localization of language.20 Carl Wernicke exemplified the dominating trend of thought in the work on aphasia when he insisted that language must be considered in complete isolation from concept formation and intelligence. The reception and production of language must likewise be considered quite separately. There were undoubtedly many reasons for the reduction to “the simplest hypotheses” in the construction of models for language physiology.21 Wernicke hints at one of them, when he emphasized the difference between the localization advocated by the phrenologists and his own.22 [95]. In 1891 A Critical Study, Towards a Conceptualization of Aphasia was published by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). It demonstrated that the difference between Gall’s and Wernicke’s concept of localization was not a basic one. Just because,” will and intellect have been recognized as psychological technical terms… (one does not)…know with greater certainty that simple sense images are nothing more than such a technical term.” There is no justification for the assumption that the physiological correlate of a simple psychological element is also simple and localizable [96] Freud out.
大多數失語症的運作者必須考慮語言方面的記憶和表述的話的內容，他們建造複雜的圖表顯示了語言的定位.卡爾韋尼克認為失語症的運作型態是主導思潮，當他堅持認為，語言必須被視為在完全孤立從概念的形成和理解力。語言的容納和生產必須同樣被視為絕對分開運作。毫無疑問，減少許多原因是在於建設語言生理學模式，是“最簡單的假設”。韋尼克暗示其中一項，他強調差異定位所倡導的骨相學和他擁有的 。在1891年的批判性研究下，弗洛伊德出版了（ 1856年至1939年）建立一個失語的概念化。這顯示戈爾和韋尼克之間的區別和定位的概念不是一個基本的面向。只是因為， “意志和智慧已被確認為心理技術術語... ...知道更大的確定性，簡單意義上的圖像只不過是這樣一個技術術語。弗洛伊德指出: ”沒有任何理由假設，是一個簡單的心理因素也是簡單和定位是和生理相關的。
He had touched the weakest spot of the aphasia theories by demonstrating that the so-called physiology of language was no more than a translation of psychological insights into physiological terms. In their attempt to consider the biological basis of language without becoming involved in psychology, the workers on aphasia had introduced their own psychology in physiological terms.23
他曾觸及不充分的失語症的理論表明，所謂的語言生理是只是一個心理的翻譯來洞察生理條件。在他們的企圖考慮生物學基礎的語言並沒有捲入心理學，而失語症的人在術語.23介紹了自己的心理和生理。
If nothing else, the basic importance of the brain for language function had been established by the work done on aphasia. Yet neither the brain nor aphasia was even mentioned in one of the most important books on language, published in 1891 by Georg von der Gabelentz (1840-1893). In speaking of the biological basis of man’s language capacity, he only mentioned the upright posture and man’s unencumbered chest as factors which may have facilitated development of language in the human species. The psychological origin of language was sought in jealousy, boredom, playfulness or other mental and physical needs. Linguistics should not be a natural science, and only man’s ability to order his thoughts could be profitably subjected to the method of scientific psychology. The most important function of language, the expression of connected thoughts and concepts, could only be studied by means of logical analysis and metaphysics [97]. Steinthal’s hope that language would be considered in a broader frame had not been realized in linguistics.
如果沒有其他的功能，大腦語言功能的基本重要性已經由失語症的運作完成建立。然而無論是大腦也不是失語症中，提到的一本最重要的語言書籍，出版於1891年由喬治馮德加貝倫茨（ 1840至1893年） 。在談到生物學基礎上人的語言能力，他只提到了直立的姿勢和人的支配胸部的因素可能有利於人類物種在語言上的發展。心理起源的語言是尋求嫉妒，無聊，遊戲或其他精神和肉體的需要。而語言學不應該是一個自然的科學，只有人有能力去命令腦中想法，這樣可以獲得科學心理的方法。語言最重要的功能，是表達的聯繫思想和概念，這樣僅僅是研究邏輯分析方法和形而上學。施泰因塔爾希望，將語言在更廣泛的範圍內去實現語言學。
大多數失語症的運作者必須考慮語言方面的記憶和表述的話的內容，他們建造複雜的圖表顯示了語言的定位.卡爾韋尼克認為失語症的運作型態是主導思潮，當他堅持認為，語言必須被視為在完全孤立從概念的形成和理解力。語言的容納和生產必須同樣被視為絕對分開運作。毫無疑問，減少許多原因是在於建設語言生理學模式，是“最簡單的假設”。韋尼克暗示其中一項，他強調差異定位所倡導的骨相學和他擁有的 。在1891年的批判性研究下，弗洛伊德出版了（ 1856年至1939年）建立一個失語的概念化。這顯示戈爾和韋尼克之間的區別和定位的概念不是一個基本的面向。只是因為， “意志和智慧已被確認為心理技術術語... ...知道更大的確定性，簡單意義上的圖像只不過是這樣一個技術術語。弗洛伊德指出: ”沒有任何理由假設，是一個簡單的心理因素也是簡單和定位是和生理相關的。
He had touched the weakest spot of the aphasia theories by demonstrating that the so-called physiology of language was no more than a translation of psychological insights into physiological terms. In their attempt to consider the biological basis of language without becoming involved in psychology, the workers on aphasia had introduced their own psychology in physiological terms.23
他曾觸及不充分的失語症的理論表明，所謂的語言生理是只是一個心理的翻譯來洞察生理條件。在他們的企圖考慮生物學基礎的語言並沒有捲入心理學，而失語症的人在術語.23介紹了自己的心理和生理。
If nothing else, the basic importance of the brain for language function had been established by the work done on aphasia. Yet neither the brain nor aphasia was even mentioned in one of the most important books on language, published in 1891 by Georg von der Gabelentz (1840-1893). In speaking of the biological basis of man’s language capacity, he only mentioned the upright posture and man’s unencumbered chest as factors which may have facilitated development of language in the human species. The psychological origin of language was sought in jealousy, boredom, playfulness or other mental and physical needs. Linguistics should not be a natural science, and only man’s ability to order his thoughts could be profitably subjected to the method of scientific psychology. The most important function of language, the expression of connected thoughts and concepts, could only be studied by means of logical analysis and metaphysics [97]. Steinthal’s hope that language would be considered in a broader frame had not been realized in linguistics.
如果沒有其他的功能，大腦語言功能的基本重要性已經由失語症的運作完成建立。然而無論是大腦也不是失語症中，提到的一本最重要的語言書籍，出版於1891年由喬治馮德加貝倫茨（ 1840至1893年） 。在談到生物學基礎上人的語言能力，他只提到了直立的姿勢和人的支配胸部的因素可能有利於人類物種在語言上的發展。心理起源的語言是尋求嫉妒，無聊，遊戲或其他精神和肉體的需要。而語言學不應該是一個自然的科學，只有人有能力去命令腦中想法，這樣可以獲得科學心理的方法。語言最重要的功能，是表達的聯繫思想和概念，這樣僅僅是研究邏輯分析方法和形而上學。施泰因塔爾希望，將語言在更廣泛的範圍內去實現語言學。
2008年10月1日 星期三
LB 394-395T 怡萱
CH 9. Ⅴ.
With respect to language, we should like to know how narrowly defined the biological matrix is. This is entirely an empirical question, and the objective is not to find out whether the environment is necessary (it clearly is) and not even how much or what it contributes to the development of language (the answers are almost too obvious to deserve much attention)；the only thoroughly interesting problem here is to discover the range of possible alternatives to the common modes of internal organization for language processing. At present, we have only indirect clues (language universals, common age for language onset, and a universal strategy for language acquisition), and these point to great specificity of the underlying matrix.
至於語言方面，我們要知道如何嚴格界定生物矩陣。這完全是一個經驗性的問題，目標不是找出發展語言是否需要環境（這是顯而易見的）和甚至有多少或什麼方式有助於發展語言（答案幾乎明顯到值得重視） ;這個唯一有趣的問題是，要發現各種可能替代共同的內部組織語言處理的模式。目前，我們只能用間接線索（語言共通性，語言開始的共同年齡，和一個語言習得普遍的策酪） ，這些是基本矩陣的重大特殊指向。
In the light of these comments we may ask now,” Just what is postulated to be innate in language behavior?” Essentially the modes of categorization as discussed in Chapter Seven and Eight. This is an aspect of the latent structure. Innate also is the general mode actualization process but no particular aspect of the realized structure. Thus, no features that are characteristic of only certain natural languages, either particulars of syntax, or phonology, or semantics, are assumed here to be innate. However, there are many reasons to believe that the processes by which the realized, outer structure of a natural language comes about are deeply-rooted, species-specific, innate properties of man's biological nature.
根據這些意見，我們現在可能會問: “究竟什麼是是天生的語言行為的必要條件？ ”第七章和第八章中討論分類方式的本質。這是一個潛在結構的面向。先天也是一般模式實現的過程，但沒有特別去實現結構的面向。因此，只有限於自然語言中的功能和特點，無論是細部的句法，或音韻，或語意，在這裡假設語言是天生的。然而，有許多理由可以相信這些實現的過程，像是外部結構的一種自然的語言來的是根深蒂固的，具體的物種情況，人類生物性質的天生特性。
With respect to language, we should like to know how narrowly defined the biological matrix is. This is entirely an empirical question, and the objective is not to find out whether the environment is necessary (it clearly is) and not even how much or what it contributes to the development of language (the answers are almost too obvious to deserve much attention)；the only thoroughly interesting problem here is to discover the range of possible alternatives to the common modes of internal organization for language processing. At present, we have only indirect clues (language universals, common age for language onset, and a universal strategy for language acquisition), and these point to great specificity of the underlying matrix.
至於語言方面，我們要知道如何嚴格界定生物矩陣。這完全是一個經驗性的問題，目標不是找出發展語言是否需要環境（這是顯而易見的）和甚至有多少或什麼方式有助於發展語言（答案幾乎明顯到值得重視） ;這個唯一有趣的問題是，要發現各種可能替代共同的內部組織語言處理的模式。目前，我們只能用間接線索（語言共通性，語言開始的共同年齡，和一個語言習得普遍的策酪） ，這些是基本矩陣的重大特殊指向。
In the light of these comments we may ask now,” Just what is postulated to be innate in language behavior?” Essentially the modes of categorization as discussed in Chapter Seven and Eight. This is an aspect of the latent structure. Innate also is the general mode actualization process but no particular aspect of the realized structure. Thus, no features that are characteristic of only certain natural languages, either particulars of syntax, or phonology, or semantics, are assumed here to be innate. However, there are many reasons to believe that the processes by which the realized, outer structure of a natural language comes about are deeply-rooted, species-specific, innate properties of man's biological nature.
根據這些意見，我們現在可能會問: “究竟什麼是是天生的語言行為的必要條件？ ”第七章和第八章中討論分類方式的本質。這是一個潛在結構的面向。先天也是一般模式實現的過程，但沒有特別去實現結構的面向。因此，只有限於自然語言中的功能和特點，無論是細部的句法，或音韻，或語意，在這裡假設語言是天生的。然而，有許多理由可以相信這些實現的過程，像是外部結構的一種自然的語言來的是根深蒂固的，具體的物種情況，人類生物性質的天生特性。
REFERENCES
Chomsky, N.(1963), Formal properties of grammars, in Handbook of Mathematical psychology, R. D, Luce, R. R. Bush, and E. Galanter(eds.), Vol. II, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Chonsky, N. and Miller, G. A.(1963), Introduction to the formal analysis of natural languages, in Handbooks of Mathematical Psychology, R. D. Luce, R. R. Bush, and E. Galanter(eds.), Vol.II, John Wikey and Sons, New York.
Cowgill, W.(1963), A search for universals in Indo-European diachronic morphology, in Universals of Language, J. H. Greenberg(ed.), M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Hockett, C. F.(1950), Age-grading and linguistic continuity, Language 26:449-457.
Hoenigswald, H. M. (1963), Are there universals of linguistic change? in Universals of Language, J. H. Greenberg(ed.), M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Miller, G. A. and Chomsky, N. (1963), Finitary models of language users , in Handbook of Mathematical psychology, R. D, Luce, R. R. Bush, and E. Galanter(eds.), Vol. II, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Sapir, E. (1921), Language : an introduction to the study of speech, Harcourt, Brace and World, New York
2008年9月24日 星期三
LB Preface Para 6-7 T 伊津 怡萱
Preface Para. 6. 7
Ideas do not grow in vacuo. Throughout my fifteen years of residence in the Cambridge area, I have greatly profited from courses taken and given, from conversations, and from general interaction with colleagues and students. I wish to mention particularly Gorge v. Bekesy, Roger Brown, Jerome Bruner, Noam Chomsky, George Gardner, George Miller, and Peter Wolff. All of them have discussed various aspects of this book with me, and most have read and commented upon several chapters or the entire manuscript. I am also indebted to Hans-Lukas Teuber for critically reading Chapters one and five; to A. H Schultz and George Erikson for advising me on Chapter two; to Philip Liberman and Arthur House for commenting on Chapter three; to M. Kinsbourne for reading chapter four; to Charles Gross and Peter Huttenlocher for criticisms of Chapter five; to H. Burla, Hans Kalmus, and Ernst Mayr for reading various versions of Chapter six; and to DeLee Latz for comments and criticisms on Chapter eight.
想法並非憑空而來。住在劍橋的期間，上課與聽課時與同事和學生的交流，使我獲益良多。我要特別感謝Georg v। Békésy,Roger Brown, Jerome Bruner, Noam Chomsky, George Gardner, George Miller, 還有 Peter Wolff。 他們皆與我討論過書中的許多部份，大多數人曾評論或閱讀過好幾個章節或整個手稿。我也要感謝Hans-Lukas Teuber，謝謝他對第一章和第五章的批評指教; 還要感謝 A। H Schultz 和 George Erikson， 他們給了許多第二章的建議;感謝 Philip Liberman and Arthur House 評論了第三章; 感謝 M। Kinsbourne閱讀第四章; 感謝Charles Gross和 Peter Huttenlocher 對第五章的批評; 感謝H। Burla, Hans Kalmus和 Ernst Mayr 閱讀了第六章的各個版本;感謝 DeLee Lantz 對第八章的評論與批評。
Most of my research reported here was carried out under the auspices of The Children’s Hospital Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, the Psychological Laboratories, and the Center for Cognitive Studies oh Harvard University, and it is a pleasure to acknowledge their generous hospitality here।
在兒童醫院醫療中心、哈佛醫學院、院中的心理實驗室和哈佛大學認知研究中心的贊助之下，在這些地方完成了我書本中大多數的研究報告，由衷地感謝這些機構為此研究熱情的款待。
2008年6月12日 星期四
19 What's in CVC-like things
Natural Language Processing Enabling machines to understand and respond to what people mean, so they can interact with a computer naturally – without having to adapt their behavior to a computer's limitations.
Resolving ambiguities in written and spoken language requires analyzing grammar, concepts, context, and human knowledge. For example:
"The company is ready to sell” is not easy for a computer to understand because the sentence is syntactically ambiguous – is the company opening for business, or does it want to be acquired?
Resolving this ambiguity requires understanding the context: is the sentence in the middle of an article on mergers and acquisitions? Or is the sentence followed by “Its shelves are stocked with all the hot products"? This succeeding sentence is helpful only if the computer understands that the possessive pronoun “its” refers to the company, and that “stocked” and “products” are more relevant to selling goods than to being acquired.
19.1
-Sound produced
-Physical construct
-Language and linguistic structure
19.1.1 Language as a formal system
-language and linguistic structure as” things
-set of sentence
19.1.2 Language as physical reality
-analogous to that of electrons in physics
-stream of speech
19.1.3language as a psychological reality
-mental code
-language process
Resolving ambiguities in written and spoken language requires analyzing grammar, concepts, context, and human knowledge. For example:
"The company is ready to sell” is not easy for a computer to understand because the sentence is syntactically ambiguous – is the company opening for business, or does it want to be acquired?
Resolving this ambiguity requires understanding the context: is the sentence in the middle of an article on mergers and acquisitions? Or is the sentence followed by “Its shelves are stocked with all the hot products"? This succeeding sentence is helpful only if the computer understands that the possessive pronoun “its” refers to the company, and that “stocked” and “products” are more relevant to selling goods than to being acquired.
19.1
-Sound produced
-Physical construct
-Language and linguistic structure
19.1.1 Language as a formal system
-language and linguistic structure as” things
-set of sentence
19.1.2 Language as physical reality
-analogous to that of electrons in physics
-stream of speech
19.1.3language as a psychological reality
-mental code
-language process
7 Issue of Phonological Cpmplexity
˙in the first three comparison syllable structure is compared with the segment inventory variables
˙Two measures of vowel inventory shows a systematic relationship with syllable complexity.
˙Posthoc comparisons show that only the comparison between none and complex reaches significance
˙The final comparison is between the two categories variables reflecting complexity of syllable structure and tone system.
˙Post hoc
Post hoc is a Latin phrase, meaning "after this" or "after the event". It may refer to:
Post hoc ergo propter hoc, a logical fallacy
Post-hoc analysis, a form of statistical analysis
˙Fallacy: Post Hoc
Reference: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/post-hoc.html
˙Two measures of vowel inventory shows a systematic relationship with syllable complexity.
˙Posthoc comparisons show that only the comparison between none and complex reaches significance
˙The final comparison is between the two categories variables reflecting complexity of syllable structure and tone system.
˙Post hoc
Post hoc is a Latin phrase, meaning "after this" or "after the event". It may refer to:
Post hoc ergo propter hoc, a logical fallacy
Post-hoc analysis, a form of statistical analysis
˙Fallacy: Post Hoc
Reference: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/post-hoc.html
18 Controlled and Mechanical Properties
18.1Experimental approch
A.many of the properties encoded in the target pronunciation are manifested in the temporal domain
B.most of these properties are language-specific and are not phonetic universals resulting from vocal tract constraints
C. these effects are used by listeners in speech perception
D. perception constrains motor strategies, intended properties will be rescaled in duration across different rate and prosodic variations
18.2 Vowel Nasalization
Vowel Nasalization in American English /PDF 6-10 August 2007
A.many of the properties encoded in the target pronunciation are manifested in the temporal domain
B.most of these properties are language-specific and are not phonetic universals resulting from vocal tract constraints
C. these effects are used by listeners in speech perception
D. perception constrains motor strategies, intended properties will be rescaled in duration across different rate and prosodic variations
18.2 Vowel Nasalization
Vowel Nasalization in American English /PDF 6-10 August 2007
9 Perception , Variation, and Sound Change
Sound change
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with phonological change. (Discuss)
This article does not cite any references or sources. (November 2006)Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.
Note: This page or section contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See Help:IPA for a pronunciation key.
Sound change includes any processes of language change that affect pronunciation (phonetic change) or word structures (phonemic change). Sound change can consist of the replacement of one speech sound (or, more generally, one phonetic feature) by another, the complete loss of the affected sound, and (rarely) even the introduction of a new sound in a place where there previously was none. Sound changes can be environmentally conditioned, meaning that the change in question only occurs in a defined sound environment, whereas in other environments the same speech sound is not affected by the change.
Sound change is assumed to be usually regular, which means that it is expected to apply mechanically whenever its structural condition is met, irrespective of any non-phonological factors (such as the meaning of the words affected). On the other hand, sound changes can sometimes be sporadic, affecting only one particular word or a few words, without any seeming regularity.
Of regular sound changes, the somewhat hyperbolic term sound law is also sometimes used. This term was introduced by the Neogrammarian school in the 19th century and is still commonly applied to some historically important sound changes, such as Grimm's law. While real-world sound changes often admit of exceptions (for a variety of known reasons, and sometimes without a known reason), the expectation of their regularity or "exceptionlessness" is of great heuristic value, since it allows historical linguists to define the notion of regular correspondence (see: comparative method).
Each sound change is limited in space and time. It means it functions within a specified area (only in some dialects) and within a specified period of time. These limitations are some of the reasons for which some scholars refuse using the term "sound law" (asserting that laws should not have such spatial and temporal limitations) and replace it with phonetic rule.
Contents
1 The formal notation of sound change
2 Principles of sound change
3 Terms for changes in pronunciation
4 Examples of specific historical sound changes
5 External links
˙LNG 201/ENGL 202Prof. G. Steinberg Sound Changes
˙Contextual Variations in Implicit Evaluation /PDF
Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_change
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with phonological change. (Discuss)
This article does not cite any references or sources. (November 2006)Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.
Note: This page or section contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See Help:IPA for a pronunciation key.
Sound change includes any processes of language change that affect pronunciation (phonetic change) or word structures (phonemic change). Sound change can consist of the replacement of one speech sound (or, more generally, one phonetic feature) by another, the complete loss of the affected sound, and (rarely) even the introduction of a new sound in a place where there previously was none. Sound changes can be environmentally conditioned, meaning that the change in question only occurs in a defined sound environment, whereas in other environments the same speech sound is not affected by the change.
Sound change is assumed to be usually regular, which means that it is expected to apply mechanically whenever its structural condition is met, irrespective of any non-phonological factors (such as the meaning of the words affected). On the other hand, sound changes can sometimes be sporadic, affecting only one particular word or a few words, without any seeming regularity.
Of regular sound changes, the somewhat hyperbolic term sound law is also sometimes used. This term was introduced by the Neogrammarian school in the 19th century and is still commonly applied to some historically important sound changes, such as Grimm's law. While real-world sound changes often admit of exceptions (for a variety of known reasons, and sometimes without a known reason), the expectation of their regularity or "exceptionlessness" is of great heuristic value, since it allows historical linguists to define the notion of regular correspondence (see: comparative method).
Each sound change is limited in space and time. It means it functions within a specified area (only in some dialects) and within a specified period of time. These limitations are some of the reasons for which some scholars refuse using the term "sound law" (asserting that laws should not have such spatial and temporal limitations) and replace it with phonetic rule.
Contents
1 The formal notation of sound change
2 Principles of sound change
3 Terms for changes in pronunciation
4 Examples of specific historical sound changes
5 External links
˙LNG 201/ENGL 202Prof. G. Steinberg Sound Changes
˙Contextual Variations in Implicit Evaluation /PDF
Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_change
2008年6月8日 星期日
15 Discourse : Language comprehension in context
Discourse
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Discourses.
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards.Please improve this article if you can. (March 2007)
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:
Discourse
Philosophy Portal
Discourse (L. discursus, "running to and from") means either "written or spoken communication or debate" or "a formal discussion or debate" [1]. The term is often used in semantics and discourse analysis.
In semantics, discourses are linguistic units composed of several sentences; in other words, conversations, arguments, or speeches. In discourse analysis, which came to prominence in the late 1960s, the word "discourse" is shorthand for "discursive formation", which is what Michel Foucault called communication that involves specialized knowledge of various kinds. It is in this sense that the word is most often used in academic studies.
Studies of discourse have been carried out within a variety of traditions that investigate the relations between language, structure and agency, including feminist studies, anthropology, enthnography, cultural studies, literary theory and the history of ideas. Within these fields, the notion of discourse is itself subject to discourse, that is, debated on the basis of specialized knowledge. Discourse can be observed in the use of spoken, written and signed language and multimodal/multimedia forms of communication, and is not found only in 'non-fictional' or verbal materials.
Contents[hide]
1 The Social Scientific Conception of Discourse
2 Modernism
3 Structuralism
4 Postmodernism
5 Feminism
6 See also
8 References
9 External links
The Social Scientific Conception of Discourse
This section does not cite any references or sources. (April 2008)Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.
In the social sciences (following the work of Michel Foucault), a discourse is considered to be an institutionalized way of thinking, a social boundary defining what can be said about a specific topic, or, as Judith Butler puts it, "the limits of acceptable speech"—or possible truth. Discourses are seen to affect our views on all things; it is not possible to escape discourse. For example, two notably distinct discourses can be used about various guerrilla movements describing them either as "freedom fighters" or "terrorists". In other words, the chosen discourse delivers the vocabulary, expressions and perhaps also the style needed to communicate. Discourse is closely linked to different theories of power and state, at least as long as defining discourses is seen to mean defining reality itself.
This conception of discourse is largely derived from the work of French philosopher Michel Foucault (see below)
Modernism
Modern theorists were focused on achieving progress and believed in the existence of natural and social laws which could be used universally to develop knowledge and thus a better understanding of society [2]. Modernist theorists were preoccupied with obtaining the truth and reality and sought to develop theories which contained certainty and predictability [3]. Modernist theorists therefore viewed discourse as a being relative to talking or way of talking and understood discourse to be functional [4]. Discourse and language transformations are ascribed to progress or the need to develop new or more “accurate” words to describe new discoveries, understandings or areas of interest [5]. In modern times, language and discourse are dissociated from power and ideology and instead conceptualized as “natural” products of common sense usage or progress [6]. Modernism further gave rise to the liberal discourses of rights, equality, freedom and justice however this rhetoric masked the substantive inequality and failed to account for differences [7].
Structuralism
Structuralist theorists, such as Ferdinand de Saussure and Jacques Lacan, argue that all human actions and social formations are related to language and can be understood as systems of related elements [8]. This means that the “...individual elements of a system only have significance when considered in relation to the structure as a whole, and that structures are to be understood as self-contained, self-regulated, and self-transforming entities” [9]. In other words, it is the structure itself that determines the significance, meaning and function of the individual elements of a system. Structuralism has made an important contribution to our understanding of language and social systems. Saussure’s theory of language highlights the decisive role of meaning and signification in structuring human life more generally [10].
Postmodernism
Following the perceived limitations of the modern era, emerged postmodern theory [11]. Postmodern theorists rejected modernist claims that there was one theoretical approach that explained all aspects of society [12]. Rather, postmodernist theorists were interested in examining the variety of experience of individuals and groups and emphasized differences over similarities and common experiences [13].
In contrast to modern theory, postmodern theory is more fluid and allows for individual differences as it rejected the notion of social laws. Postmodern theorists shifted away from truth seeking and instead sought answers for how truths are produced and sustained. Postmodernists contended that truth and knowledge is plural, contextual, and historically produced through discourses. Postmodern researchers therefore embarked on analyzing discourses such as texts, language, policies and practices [14].
French social theorist Michel Foucault developed an entirely original notion of discourse in his early work, especially the Archaeology of Knowledge (1972). In Discursive Struggles Within Social Welfare: Restaging Teen Motherhood, [15] summarizes Foucault's definition of discourse as “systems of thoughts composed of ideas, attitudes, courses of action, beliefs and practices that systematically construct the subjects and the worlds of which they speak." He traces the role of discourses in wider social processes of legitimating and power, emphasizing the construction of current truths, how they are maintained and what power relations they carry with them.” Foucault later theorized that discourse is a medium through which power relations produce speaking subjects [16]. Foucault (1977, 1980) argued that power and knowledge are inter-related and therefore every human relationship is a struggle and negotiation of power. Foucault further stated that power is always present and can both produce and constrain the truth [17]. Discourse according to Foucault (1977, 1980, 2003) is related to power as it operates by rules of exclusion. Discourse therefore is controlled by objects, what can be spoken of, ritual, where and how one may speak and the privileged, who may speak [18]. Coining the phrases power-knowledge Foucault (1980) stated knowledge was both the creator of power and creation of power.
Feminism
Feminists have explored the complex relationships that exist among power, ideology, language and discourse.[19] Feminist theory talks about ‘doing gender’ and/or ‘performing gender’.[20] It is suggested that gender is a property, not of persons themselves but of the behaviours to which members of a society ascribe a gendering meaning. “Being a man/woman involves appropriating gendered behaviours and making them part of the self that an individual presents to others. Repeated over time, these behaviours may be internalized as ‘me’ – that is, gender does not feel like a performance or an accomplishment to the actor, it just feels like her or his ‘natural’ way of behaving”.[21] Feminist theorists have attempted to recover the subject and 'subjectivity'. Chris Weedon, one of the best known scholars working in the feminist poststructuralist tradition, has sought to integrate individual experience and social power in a theory of subjectivity.[22] Weedon defines subjectivity as 'the conscious and unconscious thoughts and emotions of the individual, her sense of herself, and her ways of understanding her relation to the world.[23] Judith Butler, also another well known post structuralist feminist scholar, explains that the performativity of gender offers an important contribution to the conceptual understanding of processes of subversion. She argues that subversion occurs through the enactment of an identity that is repeated in directions that go back and forth which then results in the displacement of the original goals of dominant forms of power.[24]
See also
Foucault's episteme
Critical discourse analysis
Political discourse analysis
Postcolonial literature
Parrhesia
Discourse Community
References
S. Best & D. Kellner (1997). The postmodern turn. The Guilford Press.
M. Foucault (1972). Archaeology of knowledge. New York: Pantheon.
M. Foucault (1977). Discipline and Punish. New York: Pantheon.
M. Foucault (1980). "Two Lectures," in Colin Gordon, ed., Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews.. New York: Pantheon.
M. Foucault (2003). Society Must Be Defended. New York: Picador.
D. Howarth (2000). Discourse. Philadelphia, Pa.: Open University Press.
J. Larrain (1994). "Ideology and cultural identity: Modernity and the third world presence". Cambridge: Polity Press.
I. Lessa (2006). "Discoursive struggles within social welfare: Restaging teen motherhood". British Journal of Social Work 36: 283–298.
A. McHoul & W. Grace (1993). A Foucault primer: Discourse, power, and the subject. Melborne: Melborne University Press.
J. Motion & S. Leitch (2007). "A toolbox for public relations: The oeuvre of Michel Foucault". Public Relations Review 33 (3): 263–268.
R. Mullaly (1997). Structural social work: Ideology, theory, and practice, 2nd ed, New York: Oxford University Press.
B. Norton (1997). "Language, identity, and the ownership of English". TESOL Quarterly 31 (3): 409–429.
Research as resistance: Critical, indigenous and anti-oppressive approaches.(2005). In Brown L. A., Strega S. (Eds.), Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press.
S. Strega (2005). The view from the poststructural margins: Epistemology and methodology reconsidered. In L. Brown, & S. Strega (Eds.), Research as resistance (pp. 199-235). Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press.
J. Sunderland (2004). Gendered discourses. New York: PalgraveMacmillan.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Discourses.
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards.Please improve this article if you can. (March 2007)
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:
Discourse
Philosophy Portal
Discourse (L. discursus, "running to and from") means either "written or spoken communication or debate" or "a formal discussion or debate" [1]. The term is often used in semantics and discourse analysis.
In semantics, discourses are linguistic units composed of several sentences; in other words, conversations, arguments, or speeches. In discourse analysis, which came to prominence in the late 1960s, the word "discourse" is shorthand for "discursive formation", which is what Michel Foucault called communication that involves specialized knowledge of various kinds. It is in this sense that the word is most often used in academic studies.
Studies of discourse have been carried out within a variety of traditions that investigate the relations between language, structure and agency, including feminist studies, anthropology, enthnography, cultural studies, literary theory and the history of ideas. Within these fields, the notion of discourse is itself subject to discourse, that is, debated on the basis of specialized knowledge. Discourse can be observed in the use of spoken, written and signed language and multimodal/multimedia forms of communication, and is not found only in 'non-fictional' or verbal materials.
Contents[hide]
1 The Social Scientific Conception of Discourse
2 Modernism
3 Structuralism
4 Postmodernism
5 Feminism
6 See also
8 References
9 External links
The Social Scientific Conception of Discourse
This section does not cite any references or sources. (April 2008)Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.
In the social sciences (following the work of Michel Foucault), a discourse is considered to be an institutionalized way of thinking, a social boundary defining what can be said about a specific topic, or, as Judith Butler puts it, "the limits of acceptable speech"—or possible truth. Discourses are seen to affect our views on all things; it is not possible to escape discourse. For example, two notably distinct discourses can be used about various guerrilla movements describing them either as "freedom fighters" or "terrorists". In other words, the chosen discourse delivers the vocabulary, expressions and perhaps also the style needed to communicate. Discourse is closely linked to different theories of power and state, at least as long as defining discourses is seen to mean defining reality itself.
This conception of discourse is largely derived from the work of French philosopher Michel Foucault (see below)
Modernism
Modern theorists were focused on achieving progress and believed in the existence of natural and social laws which could be used universally to develop knowledge and thus a better understanding of society [2]. Modernist theorists were preoccupied with obtaining the truth and reality and sought to develop theories which contained certainty and predictability [3]. Modernist theorists therefore viewed discourse as a being relative to talking or way of talking and understood discourse to be functional [4]. Discourse and language transformations are ascribed to progress or the need to develop new or more “accurate” words to describe new discoveries, understandings or areas of interest [5]. In modern times, language and discourse are dissociated from power and ideology and instead conceptualized as “natural” products of common sense usage or progress [6]. Modernism further gave rise to the liberal discourses of rights, equality, freedom and justice however this rhetoric masked the substantive inequality and failed to account for differences [7].
Structuralism
Structuralist theorists, such as Ferdinand de Saussure and Jacques Lacan, argue that all human actions and social formations are related to language and can be understood as systems of related elements [8]. This means that the “...individual elements of a system only have significance when considered in relation to the structure as a whole, and that structures are to be understood as self-contained, self-regulated, and self-transforming entities” [9]. In other words, it is the structure itself that determines the significance, meaning and function of the individual elements of a system. Structuralism has made an important contribution to our understanding of language and social systems. Saussure’s theory of language highlights the decisive role of meaning and signification in structuring human life more generally [10].
Postmodernism
Following the perceived limitations of the modern era, emerged postmodern theory [11]. Postmodern theorists rejected modernist claims that there was one theoretical approach that explained all aspects of society [12]. Rather, postmodernist theorists were interested in examining the variety of experience of individuals and groups and emphasized differences over similarities and common experiences [13].
In contrast to modern theory, postmodern theory is more fluid and allows for individual differences as it rejected the notion of social laws. Postmodern theorists shifted away from truth seeking and instead sought answers for how truths are produced and sustained. Postmodernists contended that truth and knowledge is plural, contextual, and historically produced through discourses. Postmodern researchers therefore embarked on analyzing discourses such as texts, language, policies and practices [14].
French social theorist Michel Foucault developed an entirely original notion of discourse in his early work, especially the Archaeology of Knowledge (1972). In Discursive Struggles Within Social Welfare: Restaging Teen Motherhood, [15] summarizes Foucault's definition of discourse as “systems of thoughts composed of ideas, attitudes, courses of action, beliefs and practices that systematically construct the subjects and the worlds of which they speak." He traces the role of discourses in wider social processes of legitimating and power, emphasizing the construction of current truths, how they are maintained and what power relations they carry with them.” Foucault later theorized that discourse is a medium through which power relations produce speaking subjects [16]. Foucault (1977, 1980) argued that power and knowledge are inter-related and therefore every human relationship is a struggle and negotiation of power. Foucault further stated that power is always present and can both produce and constrain the truth [17]. Discourse according to Foucault (1977, 1980, 2003) is related to power as it operates by rules of exclusion. Discourse therefore is controlled by objects, what can be spoken of, ritual, where and how one may speak and the privileged, who may speak [18]. Coining the phrases power-knowledge Foucault (1980) stated knowledge was both the creator of power and creation of power.
Feminism
Feminists have explored the complex relationships that exist among power, ideology, language and discourse.[19] Feminist theory talks about ‘doing gender’ and/or ‘performing gender’.[20] It is suggested that gender is a property, not of persons themselves but of the behaviours to which members of a society ascribe a gendering meaning. “Being a man/woman involves appropriating gendered behaviours and making them part of the self that an individual presents to others. Repeated over time, these behaviours may be internalized as ‘me’ – that is, gender does not feel like a performance or an accomplishment to the actor, it just feels like her or his ‘natural’ way of behaving”.[21] Feminist theorists have attempted to recover the subject and 'subjectivity'. Chris Weedon, one of the best known scholars working in the feminist poststructuralist tradition, has sought to integrate individual experience and social power in a theory of subjectivity.[22] Weedon defines subjectivity as 'the conscious and unconscious thoughts and emotions of the individual, her sense of herself, and her ways of understanding her relation to the world.[23] Judith Butler, also another well known post structuralist feminist scholar, explains that the performativity of gender offers an important contribution to the conceptual understanding of processes of subversion. She argues that subversion occurs through the enactment of an identity that is repeated in directions that go back and forth which then results in the displacement of the original goals of dominant forms of power.[24]
See also
Foucault's episteme
Critical discourse analysis
Political discourse analysis
Postcolonial literature
Parrhesia
Discourse Community
References
S. Best & D. Kellner (1997). The postmodern turn. The Guilford Press.
M. Foucault (1972). Archaeology of knowledge. New York: Pantheon.
M. Foucault (1977). Discipline and Punish. New York: Pantheon.
M. Foucault (1980). "Two Lectures," in Colin Gordon, ed., Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews.. New York: Pantheon.
M. Foucault (2003). Society Must Be Defended. New York: Picador.
D. Howarth (2000). Discourse. Philadelphia, Pa.: Open University Press.
J. Larrain (1994). "Ideology and cultural identity: Modernity and the third world presence". Cambridge: Polity Press.
I. Lessa (2006). "Discoursive struggles within social welfare: Restaging teen motherhood". British Journal of Social Work 36: 283–298.
A. McHoul & W. Grace (1993). A Foucault primer: Discourse, power, and the subject. Melborne: Melborne University Press.
J. Motion & S. Leitch (2007). "A toolbox for public relations: The oeuvre of Michel Foucault". Public Relations Review 33 (3): 263–268.
R. Mullaly (1997). Structural social work: Ideology, theory, and practice, 2nd ed, New York: Oxford University Press.
B. Norton (1997). "Language, identity, and the ownership of English". TESOL Quarterly 31 (3): 409–429.
Research as resistance: Critical, indigenous and anti-oppressive approaches.(2005). In Brown L. A., Strega S. (Eds.), Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press.
S. Strega (2005). The view from the poststructural margins: Epistemology and methodology reconsidered. In L. Brown, & S. Strega (Eds.), Research as resistance (pp. 199-235). Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press.
J. Sunderland (2004). Gendered discourses. New York: PalgraveMacmillan.
10 Lexical semantics
Lexical semantics
Lexical semantics is a subfield of linguistic semantics. It is the study of how and what the words of a language denote (Pustejovsky, 1995). Words may either be taken to denote things in the world, or concepts, depending on the particular approach to lexical semantics.
The units of meaning in lexical semantics are lexical units. One can continually add new lexical units throughout one's life, learning new words and their meanings. By contrast, one can only easily learn the grammatical rules of one's native language during a critical period when one is young.
Lexical semantics covers theories of the classification and decomposition of word meaning, the differences and similarities in lexical semantic structure between different languages, and the relationship of word meaning to sentence meaning and syntax.
One question that lexical semantics explores is whether the meaning of a lexical unit is established by looking at its neighbourhood in the semantic net (by looking at the other words it occurs with in natural sentences), or if the meaning is already locally contained in the lexical unit. Another topic that is explored is the mapping of words to concepts. As tools, lexical relations like synonymy, antonymy (opposites), hyponymy and hypernymy are used in this field.
See also
Lexical chain
Lexical markup framework
Lexicology
Ontology
Polysemy
Thematic role
Word sense
References
Philip Edmonds on near-synonyms (Chapter 4.1 Lexical semantics)
Bibliography of linguistics papers dealing with lexical semantics
The Lexical Semantics of a Machine Translation Interlingua by Rick Morneau
Lexical Semantics by D.A. Cruse. Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-521-27643-8
Pustejovsky, James, The Generative Lexicon, 1995, MIT Press; presents a theory of lexical semantics.
This linguistics article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_semantics"
From Semantic Enhancement of Lexical-Semantic Resources
TLC:"The teachable language comprehender", a program designed to be capable of being taught to 'comprehened' English text.
Lexical semantics is a subfield of linguistic semantics. It is the study of how and what the words of a language denote (Pustejovsky, 1995). Words may either be taken to denote things in the world, or concepts, depending on the particular approach to lexical semantics.
The units of meaning in lexical semantics are lexical units. One can continually add new lexical units throughout one's life, learning new words and their meanings. By contrast, one can only easily learn the grammatical rules of one's native language during a critical period when one is young.
Lexical semantics covers theories of the classification and decomposition of word meaning, the differences and similarities in lexical semantic structure between different languages, and the relationship of word meaning to sentence meaning and syntax.
One question that lexical semantics explores is whether the meaning of a lexical unit is established by looking at its neighbourhood in the semantic net (by looking at the other words it occurs with in natural sentences), or if the meaning is already locally contained in the lexical unit. Another topic that is explored is the mapping of words to concepts. As tools, lexical relations like synonymy, antonymy (opposites), hyponymy and hypernymy are used in this field.
See also
Lexical chain
Lexical markup framework
Lexicology
Ontology
Polysemy
Thematic role
Word sense
References
Philip Edmonds on near-synonyms (Chapter 4.1 Lexical semantics)
Bibliography of linguistics papers dealing with lexical semantics
The Lexical Semantics of a Machine Translation Interlingua by Rick Morneau
Lexical Semantics by D.A. Cruse. Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-521-27643-8
Pustejovsky, James, The Generative Lexicon, 1995, MIT Press; presents a theory of lexical semantics.
This linguistics article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_semantics"
From Semantic Enhancement of Lexical-Semantic Resources
TLC:"The teachable language comprehender", a program designed to be capable of being taught to 'comprehened' English text.
科學家現可'解讀'人的心思
美國科學家發現人們在看不同物體的時候大腦會有不同的活動，這些活動會在大腦掃描圖上會呈現特定的圖像。這意味著通過研究人腦掃描圖，研究人員最終可以歸納出那個人當時心中所想。
此前所進行的研究已經顯示，人腦顳腦葉上的特定區域會對人臉、房屋或地方做出反應。
但是美國國家腦健康學院的研究人員發現整個顳腦葉都會做出反應，而且不同的物體會令顳腦葉在掃描圖上呈現不同的圖案。他們的研究報告發表在學術刊物《科學》雜誌上
腦健康學院大腦認知實驗室的赫克斯比博士認為，這項研究可以幫助研究人員解讀大腦對不同物體或人臉做出的反應，瞭解各種物體和人臉的信息是如何在"視覺、結構以及語義上發生聯繫的"。
某研究對象的大腦對鞋的反應
赫克斯比博士說："大腦掃描圖不僅可以向我們顯示大腦何時會對信息進行編碼，還可以幫助我們瞭解這種過程是如何進行的。"
人的大腦之內有一個特定區域負責辨認地點，但是這項研究發現這一部分大腦也會對鞋、貓或椅子等其他物體做出特定反應。他們將這稱為"物體形狀地形學"。
英國劍橋醫學研究學會認知及大腦科學小組的愛潑斯坦博士也對人腦顳腦葉進行了研究。他的研究發現在人們看到地點或房屋時，他們的顳腦葉會出現活動。
他表示，美國科學家的研究顯示面對相同的物體，不同人的大腦可能會做出不同的反應。
他還指出，這項研究可以用於對中風患者的治療上。醫生們可以通過研究患者的大腦掃描圖得知患者對哪些物體的認知受到了影響。
Referece:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/chinese/trad/hi/newsid_1570000/newsid_1570200/1570248.stm
此前所進行的研究已經顯示，人腦顳腦葉上的特定區域會對人臉、房屋或地方做出反應。
但是美國國家腦健康學院的研究人員發現整個顳腦葉都會做出反應，而且不同的物體會令顳腦葉在掃描圖上呈現不同的圖案。他們的研究報告發表在學術刊物《科學》雜誌上
腦健康學院大腦認知實驗室的赫克斯比博士認為，這項研究可以幫助研究人員解讀大腦對不同物體或人臉做出的反應，瞭解各種物體和人臉的信息是如何在"視覺、結構以及語義上發生聯繫的"。
某研究對象的大腦對鞋的反應
赫克斯比博士說："大腦掃描圖不僅可以向我們顯示大腦何時會對信息進行編碼，還可以幫助我們瞭解這種過程是如何進行的。"
人的大腦之內有一個特定區域負責辨認地點，但是這項研究發現這一部分大腦也會對鞋、貓或椅子等其他物體做出特定反應。他們將這稱為"物體形狀地形學"。
英國劍橋醫學研究學會認知及大腦科學小組的愛潑斯坦博士也對人腦顳腦葉進行了研究。他的研究發現在人們看到地點或房屋時，他們的顳腦葉會出現活動。
他表示，美國科學家的研究顯示面對相同的物體，不同人的大腦可能會做出不同的反應。
他還指出，這項研究可以用於對中風患者的治療上。醫生們可以通過研究患者的大腦掃描圖得知患者對哪些物體的認知受到了影響。
Referece:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/chinese/trad/hi/newsid_1570000/newsid_1570200/1570248.stm
嬰兒咿呀學語是早期的語言
科學家們說，嬰兒寶寶口中發出的比如吧，吧，吧或嗒，嗒，嗒的聲音是語言發展的第一步。
到目前為止，有些人指出，這種咿呀學語是講話的開始﹔而另外一些人則認為，寶寶們只是在發出一些沒有任何意思的聲響而已。
現在，美國和加拿大的科學家們表示，他們已經有證據可以證明嬰兒是在學習表達真正的語言。
他們發現，在嬰兒咿呀時，是在鍛煉左部大腦，而左部大腦是控制語言的部分。這種情況在五個月大的兒童就存在。
派蒂托教授指出，"這項發現首次顯示了嬰兒的左半腦對語言能力的鍛煉與成人一樣。這就意味著大腦中的語言功能從年齡很小就開始。"
這一結論是在研究人員對10名5個月到12個月大的嬰兒的生活錄像分析後得出的。
錄像中包括嬰兒咿呀、微笑以及發出其它聲音。
派蒂托教授和她的同事將錄像以慢鏡頭放出，來測量嬰兒們口部左邊和右邊的張開程度。
這種測量很重要，原因是左腦控制右臉，反之亦然。
他們在《科學》雜誌上撰文指出，嬰兒們在咿呀時嘴的右邊張開相對比較大。
但嬰兒微笑或發出其它聲音時，嘴的左邊張開相對較大。
這項研究可能會幫助解釋嬰兒咿呀時口型的變化，也可能有助於對語言障礙做出早期診斷。
Referece: BBC中文網
到目前為止，有些人指出，這種咿呀學語是講話的開始﹔而另外一些人則認為，寶寶們只是在發出一些沒有任何意思的聲響而已。
現在，美國和加拿大的科學家們表示，他們已經有證據可以證明嬰兒是在學習表達真正的語言。
他們發現，在嬰兒咿呀時，是在鍛煉左部大腦，而左部大腦是控制語言的部分。這種情況在五個月大的兒童就存在。
派蒂托教授指出，"這項發現首次顯示了嬰兒的左半腦對語言能力的鍛煉與成人一樣。這就意味著大腦中的語言功能從年齡很小就開始。"
這一結論是在研究人員對10名5個月到12個月大的嬰兒的生活錄像分析後得出的。
錄像中包括嬰兒咿呀、微笑以及發出其它聲音。
派蒂托教授和她的同事將錄像以慢鏡頭放出，來測量嬰兒們口部左邊和右邊的張開程度。
這種測量很重要，原因是左腦控制右臉，反之亦然。
他們在《科學》雜誌上撰文指出，嬰兒們在咿呀時嘴的右邊張開相對比較大。
但嬰兒微笑或發出其它聲音時，嘴的左邊張開相對較大。
這項研究可能會幫助解釋嬰兒咿呀時口型的變化，也可能有助於對語言障礙做出早期診斷。
Referece: BBC中文網
科學家發現腦白質決定語言天賦
語言天才之所以特殊，是因為他們的大腦擁有更多的處理聲音的腦白質。
與常人大腦相比，語言天才的大腦更不對稱。
科學家們的這項研究成果被發表在《大腦皮層》雜誌上。他們希望這項成果有助於解釋語言學習的困難。
科學家們的實驗調查對象全部是以法語為母語的人們。科學家從不同的外語中選出一個發音相似的聲音，即"d"。
第一個"d"是調查對象母語法語中的"d"。這個"d"以舌尖前伸，抵住上齒發出。
第二個"d"是印地語中的"d"。這個"d"以舌頭上捲，抵住上□發出。
接著，在這兩個"d"之後加上"a"，這樣被調查對象可以發出"da"的聲音。
這兩種"da"聲音的差別可以在40微秒的時間內中聽見。研究人員測試了所有參加者處理這一聲音信息的速度。
準確率超過80%以上的人被要求參加更多辨別相似聲音的測試。
其中速度最快的人可以在幾分鐘內就能夠說出眾多不同聲音的細微區別，而速度最慢的人即便在20分鐘以後還只能瞎猜。
腦白質
主持這項研究的倫敦大學戈勒斯塔尼教授說：有些人之所以具有語言天賦，是因為他們的大腦下部初生皮層處理聲音信息的部位擁有更多的腦白質。
她介紹說，大腦不同部分由纖維聯接，而語言天才的腦容量更大，這意味著這些人的大腦纖維更加厚。
腦白質對於聯接大腦各部有著重要作用。腦白質多，就意味著處理聲音的能力強。
掃描顯示：在處理聲音信息的左半腦，語言天才的腦白質多於常人。
Referece: BBC中文網
與常人大腦相比，語言天才的大腦更不對稱。
科學家們的這項研究成果被發表在《大腦皮層》雜誌上。他們希望這項成果有助於解釋語言學習的困難。
科學家們的實驗調查對象全部是以法語為母語的人們。科學家從不同的外語中選出一個發音相似的聲音，即"d"。
第一個"d"是調查對象母語法語中的"d"。這個"d"以舌尖前伸，抵住上齒發出。
第二個"d"是印地語中的"d"。這個"d"以舌頭上捲，抵住上□發出。
接著，在這兩個"d"之後加上"a"，這樣被調查對象可以發出"da"的聲音。
這兩種"da"聲音的差別可以在40微秒的時間內中聽見。研究人員測試了所有參加者處理這一聲音信息的速度。
準確率超過80%以上的人被要求參加更多辨別相似聲音的測試。
其中速度最快的人可以在幾分鐘內就能夠說出眾多不同聲音的細微區別，而速度最慢的人即便在20分鐘以後還只能瞎猜。
腦白質
主持這項研究的倫敦大學戈勒斯塔尼教授說：有些人之所以具有語言天賦，是因為他們的大腦下部初生皮層處理聲音信息的部位擁有更多的腦白質。
她介紹說，大腦不同部分由纖維聯接，而語言天才的腦容量更大，這意味著這些人的大腦纖維更加厚。
腦白質對於聯接大腦各部有著重要作用。腦白質多，就意味著處理聲音的能力強。
掃描顯示：在處理聲音信息的左半腦，語言天才的腦白質多於常人。
Referece: BBC中文網
說漢語者使用大腦更多部分
英國的研究人員發現，說漢語普通話的人可能比說英語的人用更多大腦。研究表明，說漢語普通話者講話時同時使用大腦兩邊。
說英語者只使用大腦一邊。研究人員說，這項研究能夠促進瞭解大腦處理語言的過程。
另外，這項研究還可以幫助研究人員找到更好的辦法，幫助人們在中風或者腦部受到類似損害後重新學習，掌握語言技能。
在這項研究中，操漢語普通話和操英語的兩組人接受腦部掃描。研究人員發現，人們講英語時，靠近左太陽穴的左顳葉開始活躍。
他們發現，大腦這個區域的功能是把發音聯繫起來，形成單個詞匯。
研究發現，人們說漢語時，左顳葉和右顳葉一起活躍。研究人員說，說不同語言時，人的大腦在以不同方式破譯語言。這就推翻了長期以來的看法。
漢語普通話十分難學。不同於操英語者，說漢語者使用音調區分不同詞的不同意思。比如"馬"音，用不同音調發音，可以是馬，媽等不同的意思。
Referece: BBC中文網
說英語者只使用大腦一邊。研究人員說，這項研究能夠促進瞭解大腦處理語言的過程。
另外，這項研究還可以幫助研究人員找到更好的辦法，幫助人們在中風或者腦部受到類似損害後重新學習，掌握語言技能。
在這項研究中，操漢語普通話和操英語的兩組人接受腦部掃描。研究人員發現，人們講英語時，靠近左太陽穴的左顳葉開始活躍。
他們發現，大腦這個區域的功能是把發音聯繫起來，形成單個詞匯。
研究發現，人們說漢語時，左顳葉和右顳葉一起活躍。研究人員說，說不同語言時，人的大腦在以不同方式破譯語言。這就推翻了長期以來的看法。
漢語普通話十分難學。不同於操英語者，說漢語者使用音調區分不同詞的不同意思。比如"馬"音，用不同音調發音，可以是馬，媽等不同的意思。
Referece: BBC中文網
專家稱學習外語影響大腦組織
大腦掃描顯示外語學習對腦組織的影響科學研究發現那些有外語能力的人的大腦與那些沒有外語能力的人的腦組織有不同的地方。
專家說，新研究發現可以說明為什麼那些從小學習外語的人，其外語能力超越那些成年時才學習外語的人。
大腦組織密度
專家對那些參與研究的人的大腦進行掃描。結果顯示，具有雙語能力的人的大腦左半球低位頂葉前極皮層（inferior parietal cortex）的“灰質”（Grey Matter）的密度比較高。
專家同時發現，那些在五歲之前學習外語的人身上的這種情況特別明顯。一個人開始學習外語的年齡越大，其大腦出現改變的幾率越低。
一直以來，科學家都知道，人的大腦可以在受到刺激的情況下出現轉變。不過，專家一直都不清楚究竟可以出現多大程度的改變。
新的研究顯示，語言學習可以在很大程度上改變大腦的結構。這種情況在小孩子身上特別明顯。
外語能力
英國倫敦大學學院的梅凱利博士領導的研究包括了25名“右撇子”。這些人只說英語。與此同時，小組也研究了同樣數目的在五歲前已經學習外語的人。
與此同時，專家也包括了33名在10到15歲期間學習外語的雙語英國人。這些人經常使用外語已經有最少五年時間。
專家為這些人進行大腦掃描。他們發現，有雙語能力的人的大腦左半球低位頂葉前極皮層的“灰質”密度高於那些沒有外語能力的人。
這種情況在那些在年幼時已經開始學習外語的人身上特別顯著。
不過，BBC科學事務記者羅根說，目前仍未解答的問題是，一個人在學懂外語之後，密度已經增高的大腦部分是否會令學習第三種或者第四種外語更加容易。
Referece: BBC中文網
專家說，新研究發現可以說明為什麼那些從小學習外語的人，其外語能力超越那些成年時才學習外語的人。
大腦組織密度
專家對那些參與研究的人的大腦進行掃描。結果顯示，具有雙語能力的人的大腦左半球低位頂葉前極皮層（inferior parietal cortex）的“灰質”（Grey Matter）的密度比較高。
專家同時發現，那些在五歲之前學習外語的人身上的這種情況特別明顯。一個人開始學習外語的年齡越大，其大腦出現改變的幾率越低。
一直以來，科學家都知道，人的大腦可以在受到刺激的情況下出現轉變。不過，專家一直都不清楚究竟可以出現多大程度的改變。
新的研究顯示，語言學習可以在很大程度上改變大腦的結構。這種情況在小孩子身上特別明顯。
外語能力
英國倫敦大學學院的梅凱利博士領導的研究包括了25名“右撇子”。這些人只說英語。與此同時，小組也研究了同樣數目的在五歲前已經學習外語的人。
與此同時，專家也包括了33名在10到15歲期間學習外語的雙語英國人。這些人經常使用外語已經有最少五年時間。
專家為這些人進行大腦掃描。他們發現，有雙語能力的人的大腦左半球低位頂葉前極皮層的“灰質”密度高於那些沒有外語能力的人。
這種情況在那些在年幼時已經開始學習外語的人身上特別顯著。
不過，BBC科學事務記者羅根說，目前仍未解答的問題是，一個人在學懂外語之後，密度已經增高的大腦部分是否會令學習第三種或者第四種外語更加容易。
Referece: BBC中文網
